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w up was not planned as part of the dod studies 3 the experiments were abruptly terminated by the army in late 1975 amidst an atmosphere of scandal and recrimination as lawmakers accused researchers of questionable ethics many official government reports and civilian lawsuits followed in the wake of the controversy the chemical agents tested on volunteers included chemical warfare agents and other related agents 3 anticholinesterase nerve agents vx sarin and common organophosphorus op and carbamate pesticides mustard agents nerve agent antidotes including atropine and scopolamine nerve agent reactivators e g the common op antidote 2 pam chloride psychoactive agents including lsd pcp cannabinoids and bz irritants and riot control agents alcohol and caffeine history edit background and rationale edit after the conclusion of world war ii u s military researchers obtained formulas for the three nerve gases developed by the nazis tabun soman and sarin in 1947 the first steps of planning began when dr alsoph h corwin a professor of chemistry at johns hopkins university 4 5 wrote the chemical corps technical command positing the potential for the use of specialized enzymes as so called toxicological warfare agents he went on to suggest that with intensive research substances that depleted certain necessary nutrients could be found which would when administered on the battlefield incapacitate enemy combatants 4 in 1948 the u s army s edgewood chemical biological center began conducting research using the aforementioned nerve gases these studies included a classified human subjects component at least as early as 1948 when psychological reactions were documented in edgewood technicians initially such studies focused solely on the lethality of the gases and its treatment and prevention a classified report entitled psychochemical warfare a new concept of war was produced in 1949 by luther wilson greene technical director of the chemical and radiological laboratories at edgewood greene called for a search for novel psychoactive compounds that would create the same debilitating mental side effects as those produced by nerve gases but without their lethal effect in his words throughout recorded history wars have been characterized by death human misery and the destruction of property each major conflict being more catastrophic than the one preceding it i am convinced that it is possible by means of the techniques of psychochemical warfare to conquer an enemy without the wholesale killing of his people or the mass destruction of his property 6 in the late 1940s and early 1950s the u s army worked with harvard anesthesiologist henry k beecher at its interrogation center at camp king in germany on the use of psychoactive compounds mescaline lsd including human subject experiments and the debriefing of former nazi physicians and scientists who had worked along similar lines before the end of the war 7 in the 1950s some officials in the u s department of defense publicly asserted that many forms of chemical and allied warfare as more humane than existing weapons for example certain types of psychochemicals would make it possible to paralyze temporarily entire population centers without damage to homes and other structures 8 soviet advances in the same field were cited as a special incentive giving impetus to research efforts in this area according to testimony by maj gen marshall stubbs the army s chief chemical officer in june 1955 the united states department of defense appointed a so called ad hoc study group on psychochemical agents which seems to have acted as a central authority on the research of psychochemical at edgewood arsenal and other installations where such experimentation occurred 4 general william m creasy former chief chemical officer u s army testified to the u s house of representatives in 1959 that provided sufficient emphasis is put behind it i think the future lies in the psychochemicals 9 this was alarming enough to a harvard psychiatrist e james lieberman that he published an article entitled psychochemicals as weapons in the bulletin of the atomic scientists in 1962 lieberman while acknowledging that most of the military data on the research ongoing at the army chemical center was secret and unpublished asserted that there are moral imponderables such as whether insanity temporary or permanent is a more humane military threat than the usual afflictions of war 10 the experiments edit the edgewood arsenal human experiments took place from approximately 1948 to 1975 at the medical research laboratories which is now known as the u s army medical research institute of chemical defense usamricd at the edgewood area aberdeen proving ground maryland the experiments involved at least 254 chemical substances but focused mainly on midspectrum incapacitants such as lsd thc derivatives benzodiazepines and bz around 7 000 u s military personnel and 1 000 civilians were test subjects over almost three decades 11 12 13 a result of these experiments was that bz was weaponized although never deployed 14 according to a dod faq the edgewood arsenal experiments involved the following rough breakout of volunteer hours against various experimental categories 15 experimental category percentage of volunteer hours incapacitating compounds 29 9 lethal compounds 14 5 riot control compounds 14 2 protective equipment and clothing 13 2 development evaluation and test procedures 12 5 effects of drugs and environmental stress on human physiological mechanisms 6 4 human factors tests ability to follow instructions 2 1 other visual studies sleep deprivation etc 7 2 acetylcholine related experiments edit much of the experimentation at edgewood arsenal surrounded the modulation of acetylcholine or acetylcholinesterase or the deactivation and reactivation of substances which did the same 1 these experiments represented a significant enough proportion of the total experimentation to earn a dedicated volume in the main experimental documentation much of the follow up data on the acetylcholine related experiments are lacking or entirely missing due to a combination of remaining classification and failures on the part of the united states department of veterans affairs and united states department of defense to follow the subjects of the experimentation 16 citation needed anticholinesterase experiments edit anticholinesterases are substances that interfere with the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase and therefore sustaining the effect of acetylcholine or butyrylcholine within the chemical synapses 17 resulting in a cholinergic crisis and possibly death if untreated 18 long term side effects of exposure to anticholinesterases including at levels below the threshold for profound illness and death can include paralysis and peripheral neuropathy 19 sleep disturbance 20 genetic mutation and cancer 1 in total 1 406 subjects were tested with 16 agents some of which included reactivating agents and protective agents 1 anticholinergic experiments edit anticholinergics are substances that interfere with the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system by inhibiting acetylcholine resulting in what is essentially the opposite effect of a cholinesterase inhibitor to the extreme 21 this can result in anticholinergic syndrome and possibly death if untreated 22 23 available data from both experiment patients 1 and pharmaceutical research indicates that short term exposure to anticholinergic compounds especially the extremely limited exposures described in the documentation is associated with no long term effects in the decades since their introduction to medical use research has begun to suggest a causal relationship between long term anticholinergic drug use and later development or worsening of dementia 24 in total 1 752 subjects were tested with 21 agents some of whom received exposure to more than one chemical agent 1 cholinesterase reactivator experiments edit cholinesterase reactivators are substances which reactivate acetylcholinesterase which has been inactivated by an anticholinesterase 25 1 this action can be precipitated through a variety of mechanisms including directly binding and deactivating the anticholinesterase itself 26 blocking the reaction between the anticholinesterase and the acetylcholinesterase 27 changing the release of acetylcholine 28 blocking acetylcholine s cholinolytic effect 29 or by increasing the excretion of the anticholinesterase 30 available data from the experiments 1 and from prescribing information 31 from modern marketing of these substances concludes that little risk exists of long term effects from exposure it is noted however in both the prescribing information for modern variants and in toxicological research on the subject that it has been the subject of insufficient research to conclude this beyond a reasonable doubt 32 31 in total 219 subjects were tested with four agents 1 psychochemical related experiments edit the 1976 report on the matter identifies the sole objective of the psychochemical experiments as determining the impact on morale and efficacy such agents would have on military units 4 it appears that these experiments specifically were first called for in 1954 after the attendees of the first psychochemical conference informed the department of defense that human trials were indicated in 1957 the first report of such trials were received detailing a four person experiment wherein they attempted to successfully decontaminate themselves of a mock agent while under the influence of lsd 33 lsd experiments edit the lsd experiments are perhaps the best documented of the psychochemical experiments of the time garnering at least two significant independent reports 4 33 34 lsd is a psychedelic drug that acts as a dopamine and serotonin agonist 35 36 precipitating a hallucinogenic effect leading to hallucinations euphoria and a wide variety of physiological symptoms 37 available data describes a wide range of doses used in the experiments from approximately 2μg kg to 16μg kg 33 a typical dose for recreational use is around 100μg 38 39 40 or about 1 1μg kg for the average adult male in the u s 41 meaning that the lowest dose used in experimentation was almost twice the typical recreational dose and the highest dose exceeded fifteen times the typical recreational dose because of limited documentation it is difficult to ascertain which experiments occurred at which installations but available documentation describes several general types of experiments which included presenting individuals with radar symbols for interpretation having them track a simulated aircraft having them read a map having them interpret meteorological data and having them attempt to defend an installation against a simulated hostile air craft attack with 40 mm antiaircraft automatic weapons 33 results varied between experiments but typically showed significant impairment at all doses with impairment increasing as dose did 4 33 34 available data from the experiments 34 concluded that long term effects from lsd exposure in not only the edgewood arsenal experiments but also in the other associated experiments conducted concurrently by the army chemical corps were minimal with the exception of a possible small increase in congenital heart disease in offspring of the experimental subjects and neuropsychological abnormalities in 9 of the participants which could not be explained by etiological explanations other than lsd exposure most of which were considered mild it is reported that all testing of lsd at edgewood arsenal and in general on behalf of the army chemical corps was abandoned on or around april 1963 4 bz experiments edit 3 quinuclidinyl benzilate or bz is a substance that interferes with the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system by inhibiting acetylcholine existing documentation admits only that the substance was tested at edgewood arsenal and all other data including the medical records from the subjects are completely missing 4 because of the extremely limited data speculation on possible side effects from exposure is impossible scandal and termination edit in september 1975 the medical research volunteer program mrvp was discontinued and all resident volunteers were removed from the edgewood installation the founder and director of the program van murray sim was called before congress and chastised by outraged lawmakers who questioned the absence of follow up care for the human volunteers an army investigation subsequently found no evidence of serious injuries or deaths associated with the mrvp but deplored both the recruiting process and the informed consent approach which they characterized as suggest ing possible coercion aftermath edit government reports edit 1982 85 iom report the institute of medicine iom published a three volume report on the edgewood research in 1982 1985 possible long term health effects of short term exposure to chemical agents 42 the three volumes were vol 1 anticholinesterases and anticholinergics 1982 vol 2 cholinesterase reactivators psychochemicals and irritants and vesicants 1984 vol 3 final report current health status of test subjects 1985 the national academy of sciences which oversees the iom sent a questionnaire to all of the former volunteers that could be located approximately 60 of the total the lack of a detailed record hampered the investigation the study could not rule out long term health effects related to exposure to the nerve agents it concluded that whether the subjects at edgewood incurred these changes depression cognitive deficits tendency to suicide and to what extent they might now show these effects are not known with regard specifically to bz and related compounds the iom study concluded that available data suggest that long term toxic effects and or delayed sequellae are unlikely 2004 gao report a government accounting office report of may 2004 chemical and biological defense dod needs to continue to collect and provide information on tests and potentially exposed personnel pp 1 24 stated in 1993 and 1994 we reported that the army chemical corps conducted a classified medical research program for developing incapacitating agents this program involved testing nerve agents nerve agent antidotes psycho chemicals and irritants the chemicals were given to volunteer service members at edgewood arsenal maryland dugway proving ground utah and forts benning bragg and mcclellan in total army documents identified 7 120 army and air force personnel who participated in these tests further gao concluded that precise information on the scope and the magnitude of tests involving human subjects was not available and the exact number of human subjects might never be known 43 safety debates edit the official position of the department of defense based on the three volume set of studies by the institute of medici...
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