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ng armies in every direction 19 20 the vast transcontinental empire connected the east with the west the pacific to the mediterranean in an enforced pax mongolica allowing the dissemination and exchange of trade technologies commodities and ideologies across eurasia 21 22 the mongol invasion halted china s economic development for over 150 years decisively changing the balance of power in the eastern hemisphere 3 361 the empire began to split due to wars over succession as the grandchildren of genghis khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir ögedei or from one of his other sons such as tolui chagatai or jochi the toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of ögedeid and chagataid factions but disputes continued among the descendants of tolui after möngke khan died 1259 rival kurultai councils simultaneously elected different successors the brothers ariq böke and kublai khan who fought each other in the toluid civil war 1260 1264 and also dealt with challenges from the descendants of other sons of genghis 23 24 kublai successfully took power but civil war ensued as he sought unsuccessfully to regain control of the chagatayid and ögedeid families by the time of kublai s death in 1294 the mongol empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives the golden horde khanate in the northwest the chagatai khanate in central asia the ilkhanate in the southwest and the yuan dynasty in the east based in modern day beijing 25 in 1304 the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of the yuan dynasty 26 27 but in 1368 the han chinese ming dynasty took over the mongol capital the genghisid rulers of the yuan retreated to the mongolian homeland and continued to rule there as the northern yuan dynasty the ming dynasty the largest army in the world with almost a million soldiers 3 419 it was therefore able to conduct military campaigns in manchuria inner mongolia yunnan and vietnam 3 419 naval voyages were also sent with the ming treasure voyages reaching africa 3 419 these also intervened militarily in java sumatra and sri lanka 3 420 the ilkhanate disintegrated in 1335 1353 the golden horde had broken into competing khanates by the end of the 15th century and was defeated by the russians in 1480 while the chagatai khanate lasted in one form or another until 1687 middle east and europe edit main articles islamic golden age and middle ages the byzantine sasanian wars of 572 591 and 602 628 produced the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict leaving both empires crippled when kavadh ii died only months after coming to the throne the sasanian empire was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war the sasanians were further weakened by economic decline heavy taxation from khosrau ii s campaigns religious unrest and the increasing power of the provincial landholders 28 the byzantine empire was also severely affected with its financial reserves exhausted by the war and the balkans now largely in the hands of the slavs 29 additionally anatolia was devastated by repeated persian invasions the empire s hold on its recently regained territories in the caucasus syria mesopotamia palestine and egypt was loosened by many years of persian occupation 30 neither empire was given any chance to recover and according to george liska the unnecessarily prolonged byzantine persian conflict opened the way for islam 31 the quraysh ruled the city of mecca and expelled their member muhammad from it to the city of medina in 622 from where he began spreading his new religion islam 3 286 in 631 muhammad marched with 10 000 to mecca and conquered it before dying the next year 3 286 his successors united most of arabia in the ridda wars 632 633 and then started the muslim conquests of the levant 634 641 egypt 639 642 and persia 633 651 the latter ending the sasanian empire 3 286 in less than a decade after his death the islamic rashidun caliphate extended its reach from atlas mountains in the west to the hindu kush in the east 3 287 however the first fitna led to its replacement by the umayyad caliphate in 661 moving the centre of power to damascus 3 286 at its height the umayaads ruled a third of the world s population 3 288 in 750 the abbasid caliphate replaced the umayyads in the abbasid revolution 3 338 in 762 they moved the capital to baghdad 3 341 the emirate of córdoba remained under umayaad rule while in 788 the idrisid dynasty broke away in morocco 3 343 the fatimid caliphate started taking over north africa from 909 onwards and the buyid dynasty broke away in persia and later mesopotamia starting in the 930s 3 286 in 711 the umayyad conquest of hispania began and in 717 they crossed the pyrenees into the european plain 3 297 they were met by the merovingian dynasty which had been established by clovis i 481 511 which was in decline leading charles martel to seize power and defeat the invasion force at the battle of tours in 732 3 297 his son pepin the short established the carolingian dynasty in 751 3 297 charlemagne 768 814 turned it into the carolingian empire being crowned emperor of the romans in 800 by the pope with this forming the basis for the later holy roman empire 3 344 meanwhile in eastern europe krum 795 814 expanded the bulgarian empire 3 345 the treaty of verdun divided carolingian empire into west middle and east francia 3 348 during the viking age 793 1066 ad norsemen known as vikings undertook large scale raiding colonizing conquest and trading throughout europe and reached north america 32 33 voyaging by sea from their homelands in denmark norway and sweden the norse people settled in the british isles ireland the faroe islands iceland greenland normandy the baltic coast and along the dnieper and volga trade routes in eastern europe where they were also known as varangians they also briefly settled in newfoundland becoming the first europeans to reach north america the vikings founded several kingdoms and earldoms in europe the kingdom of the isles suðreyjar orkney norðreyjar york jórvík and the danelaw danalǫg dublin dyflin normandy and kievan rus garðaríki the norse homelands were also unified into larger kingdoms during the viking age and the short lived north sea empire included large swathes of scandinavia and britain in 1095 pope urban ii proclaimed the first crusade at the council of clermont he encouraged military support for byzantine emperor alexios i against the seljuk turks and an armed pilgrimage to jerusalem across all social strata in western europe there was an enthusiastic popular response volunteers took a public vow to join the crusade historians now debate the combination of their motivations which included the prospect of mass ascension into heaven at jerusalem satisfying feudal obligations opportunities for renown and economic and political advantage initial successes established four crusader states in the near east the county of edessa the principality of antioch the kingdom of jerusalem and the county of tripoli the crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the city of acre fell in 1291 leading to the rapid loss of all remaining territory in the levant after this there were no further crusades to recover the holy land following the end of the carolingian empire the largest polities in western europe were the holy roman empire the byzantine empire kingdom of france and the kingdom of england 3 370 the catholic church also wielded tremendous power 3 370 in eastern europe the mongol invasion of europe killed half the population 1237 to 1241 3 369 the resulting power vacuum helped the teutonic order while the kingdom of poland and the kingdom of hungary became the main catholic realms 3 375 further east kievan rus emerged from novgorod and later became a federation of principalities the region continued to prosper following the mongol invasions 3 375 by the 15th century moscow threw off the tatar yoke and laid the foundations for the russian empire 3 408 the main power to the south meanwhile was the byzantine empire 3 375 however by 1180 the republic of venice had changed the balance of maritime power in the mediterranean 3 377 in the greater middle east power was divided between the seljuk empire the fatimid caliphate the buyid dynasty and the ghaznavids 3 378 no islamic power was able to hold egypt the levant mesopotamia and persia at the same time again 3 382 in 1258 the mongol siege of baghdad pushed the islamic world into disarray 3 381 the seljuk dynasty was founded by osman i 1200 1323 leading to the ottoman empire 3 408 in 1345 the ottomans entered europe across the dardanelles conquering thessaloniki in 1387 and advancing to kosovo by 1389 3 409 the fall of constantinople followed in 1453 3 409 the fall of constantinople marked the end of the byzantine empire and effectively the end of the roman empire a state which dated back to 27 bc and lasted nearly 1 500 years the conquest of constantinople and the fall of the byzantine empire was a key event of the late middle ages and is considered the end of the medieval period indian subcontinent edit indian politics revolved around the struggle between the buddhist pala empire the hindu gurjara pratihara dynasty the jainist rashtrakuta dynasty as well as the islamic caliphate 3 333 the pala empire had risen around 750 in bengal under gopala i while the rashtrakutas had emerged around the same time in the deccan plateau and the southern coast under dantidurga 3 334 the pratiharas first united the indo gangetic plain under nagabhata i c 730 760 who has defeated an islamic invasion of northern india 3 334 the struggle between the four lasted for almost 200 years 3 335 by the ninth century the ghaznavids a breakaway from the caliphate arose after taking advantage of the others internal weaknesses 3 335 the chola dynasty arose as the one of asia s strongest trading powers before invading sri lanka at the end of the 900 s 3 383 in 1025 they attacked rival commercial kingdom of srivijaya in southeast asia 3 383 their enemies in india included an alliance of pandyan princes and the chalukya dynasty 3 383 however the ghurid dynasty invaded the northern parts of the subcontinent 1175 to 1186 conquering much of them 3 385 3 412 in 1206 qutb al din aibak founded the delhi sultanate 3 412 by the 14th century it controlled the indo gangetic plain and the deccan plateau 3 412 in the middle of the century the latter saw the rise of the vijayanagara empire which ruled much of southern india as a federation 3 413 the sultanate and the empire engaged in continuous warfare without either being able to defeat the other 3 413 early modern era edit main article early modern era americas edit main article european colonization of the americas beginning with the 1492 arrival of christopher columbus in the caribbean and gaining control over more territory for over three centuries the spanish empire would expand across the caribbean islands half of south america most of central america and much of north america the major empires of the american continents were defeated by much smaller spanish forces the aztec empire under moctezuma ii had 200 000 troops under its command but was defeated by little over 600 conquistadors 3 429 the inca empire under atahualpa with 60 000 soldiers was defeated by 168 spaniards meanwhile 3 429 following an earlier expedition to yucatán led by juan de grijalva in 1518 spanish conquistador hernán cortés led an expedition entrada to mexico two years later in 1519 cortés and his retinue set sail for mexico 34 cortés made alliances with tributary city states altepetl of the aztec empire as well as their political rivals particularly the tlaxcaltecs and tetzcocans a former partner in the aztec triple alliance other city states also joined including cempoala and huejotzingo and polities bordering lake texcoco the inland lake system of the valley of mexico the spanish campaign against the aztec empire had its final victory on 13 august 1521 when a coalition army of spanish forces and native tlaxcalan warriors led by cortés and xicotencatl the younger captured the emperor cuauhtémoc and tenochtitlan the capital of the aztec empire the fall of tenochtitlan marks the beginning of spanish rule in central mexico and they established their capital of mexico city on the ruins of tenochtitlan after years of preliminary exploration and military skirmishes 168 spanish soldiers under conquistador francisco pizarro his brothers and their indigenous allies captured the sapa inca atahualpa in the 1532 battle of cajamarca it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in spanish victory in 1572 and colonization of the region as the viceroyalty of peru the spanish conquest of the muisca took place from 1537 to 1540 meanwhile the calchaquí wars were a series of military conflicts between the diaguita confederation and the spanish empire in the 1560 1667 period after many initial spanish successes in the arauco war against the mapuche the battle of curalaba in 1598 and the following destruction of the seven cities marked a turning point in the war leading to the establishment of a clear frontier between the spanish domains and the land of the independent mapuche asia edit gunpowder empires edit main article gunpowder empires the gunpowder empires the gunpowder empires were the ottoman safavid and mughal empires as they flourished from the 16th century to the 18th century these three empires were among the strongest and most stable economies of the early modern period leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture while their political and legal institutions were consolidated with an increasing degree of centralisation the empires underwent a significant increase in per capita income and population and a sustained pace of technological innovation they stretched from central europe and north africa in the west to between today s modern bangladesh and myanmar in the east under sultan selim i 1512 1520 the ottomans defeated the safavids in the battle of chaldiran 1514 3 439 his successor suleiman the magnificent 1520 1566 the ottoman empire marked the peak of its power and prosperity as well as the highest development of its government social and economic systems 35 already controlling the balkans it was able to invade hungary and win in the battle of mohács 1526 3 439 however further advancement failed after the siege of vienna 1529 3 440 following naval victories in the battle of preveza 1538 and the battle of djerba 1560 the ottomans also emerged as the dominant maritime power in the mediterranean 3 441 a sailing voyage even reached the aceh sultanate in 1565 3 442 at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states some of these were later absorbed into the ottoman empire while others were granted various ty...
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