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est seller of the 19th century before stowe s uncle tom s cabin another important writer was hannah webster foster who wrote the popular the coquette or the history of eliza wharton published in 1797 93 the story about a woman who is seduced and later abandoned the coquette has been praised for its demonstration of the era s contradictory ideas of womanhood 94 even as it has been criticized for delegitimizing protest against women s subordination 95 other important early american writers include charles brockden brown william gilmore simms lydia maria child and john neal romanticism 1798 1837 edit main article romantic literature in english see also romantic literature romantic poetry romanticism and romanticism in scotland romanticism was an artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in europe toward the end of the 18th century 96 romanticism arrived later in other parts of the english speaking world william blake the romantic period was one of major social change in england and wales because of the depopulation of the countryside and the rapid development of overcrowded industrial cities that took place in the period roughly between 1750 and 1850 the movement of so many people in england was the result of two forces the agricultural revolution that involved the enclosure of the land drove workers off the land and the industrial revolution which provided them employment 97 romanticism may be seen in part as a reaction to the industrial revolution 98 though it was also a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the age of enlightenment as well a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature 99 the french revolution was an especially important influence on the political thinking of many of the romantic poets 100 the landscape is often prominent in the poetry of this period so much so that the romantics especially perhaps wordsworth are often described as nature poets however the longer romantic nature poems have a wider concern because they are usually meditations on an emotional problem or personal crisis 101 romantic poetry edit important early romantics include charlotte smith william blake and robert burns in 1784 with elegiac sonnets charlotte smith reintroduced the sonnet to english literature 102 103 the poet painter and printmaker william blake was another of the early romantic poets though blake was generally unrecognised during his lifetime he is now considered a seminal figure in the history of both the poetry and visual arts of the romantic age among his most important works are songs of innocence 1789 and songs of experience 1794 and profound and difficult prophecies such as jerusalem the emanation of the giant albion 1804 c 1820 104 robert burns was a pioneer of the romantic movement and after his death he became a cultural icon in scotland after these early romantics the most significant british romantics were the lake poets including william wordsworth samuel taylor coleridge robert southey and journalist thomas de quincey however at the time walter scott was the most famous poet 105 the early romantic poets brought a new emotionalism and introspection and their emergence is marked by the first romantic manifesto in english literature the preface to lyrical ballads 1798 the poems in lyrical ballads were mostly by wordsworth though coleridge contributed rime of the ancient mariner 106 among wordsworth s most important poems are lines composed a few miles above tintern abbey resolution and independence ode intimations of immortality from recollections of early childhood and the autobiographical epic the prelude 107 robert southey was another of the so called lake poets and poet laureate for 30 years although his fame has been long eclipsed by william wordsworth and samuel taylor coleridge thomas de quincey is best known for his confessions of an english opium eater 1821 108 essayist william hazlitt 1778 1830 friend of both coleridge and wordsworth is best known today for his literary criticism especially characters of shakespear s plays 1817 109 second generation edit lord byron the second generation of romantic poets includes lord byron percy bysshe shelley and john keats byron however was still influenced by 18th century satirists and was perhaps the least romantic of the three preferring the brilliant wit of pope to what he called the wrong poetical system of his romantic contemporaries 110 byron achieved enormous fame and influence throughout europe and goethe called byron undoubtedly the greatest genius of our century 111 shelley is perhaps best known for ode to the west wind to a skylark and adonais an elegy written on the death of keats his close circle of admirers included the most progressive thinkers of the day a work like queen mab 1813 reveals shelley as the direct heir to the french and british revolutionary intellectuals of the 1790s 112 shelley became an idol of the next three or four generations of poets including important victorian and pre raphaelite poets such as robert browning and dante gabriel rossetti as well as later w b yeats 113 though john keats shared byron and shelley s radical politics his best poetry is not political 114 but is especially noted for its sensuous music and imagery along with a concern with material beauty and the transience of life 115 among his most famous works are ode to a nightingale ode on a grecian urn and to autumn keats has always been regarded as a major romantic and his stature as a poet has grown steadily through all changes of fashion 116 although sticking to its forms felicia hemans began a process of undermining the romantic tradition a deconstruction that was continued by letitia elizabeth landon as an urban poet deeply attentive to themes of decay and decomposition 117 landon s novel forms of metrical romance and dramatic monologue were much copied and contributed to her long lasting influence on victorian poetry 117 other poets edit another important poet in this period was john clare the son of a farm labourer who came to be known for his celebratory representations of the english countryside and his lamentation for the changes taking place in rural england 118 his poetry has undergone a major re evaluation and he is often now considered to be among the most important 19th century poets 119 george crabbe was an english poet who during the romantic period wrote closely observed realistic portraits of rural life in the heroic couplets of the augustan age 120 modern critic frank whitehead has said that crabbe in his verse tales in particular is an important indeed a major poet whose work has been and still is seriously undervalued 121 romantic novel edit one of the most popular novelists of the era was sir walter scott whose historical romances inspired a generation of painters composers and writers throughout europe scott s novel writing career was launched in 1814 with waverley often called the first historical novel 9 the last of the mohicans illustration from 1896 edition by j t merrill the works of jane austen critique the novels of sensibility of the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th century realism 122 her plots in novels such as pride and prejudice 1813 and emma 1815 though fundamentally comic highlight the dependence of women on marriage to secure social standing and economic security 123 romanticism in america edit main articles american literature and romantic literature in english the european romantic movement reached america in the early 19th century american romanticism was just as multifaceted and individualistic as it was in europe like the europeans the american romantics demonstrated a high level of moral enthusiasm commitment to individualism and the unfolding of the self an emphasis on intuitive perception and the assumption that the natural world was inherently good while human society was corrupt 124 romantic gothic literature made an early appearance with washington irving s the legend of sleepy hollow 1820 and rip van winkle 1819 there are picturesque local color elements in washington irving s essays and especially his travel books from 1823 the prolific and popular novelist james fenimore cooper began publishing his historical romances of frontier and indian life however edgar allan poe s tales of the macabre that first appeared in the early 1830s and his poetry were more influential in france than at home 125 126 victorian era 1837 1901 edit see also victorian era main article victorian literature sage writing edit main article sage writing thomas carlyle by julia margaret cameron 1867 during these years sage writing developed as a new literary genre in which the author sought to express notions about the world man s situation in it and how he should live 127 john holloway identified benjamin disraeli george eliot john henry newman and thomas hardy as writers of this type foremost among them was thomas carlyle a scottish essayist historian and philosopher who became the undoubted head of english letters in the 19th century 128 129 known as the sage of chelsea the highly prolific author criticized the industrial revolution 130 preached hero worship 131 and rebuked political economy 132 in a series of works written in carlylese the name given to his unique style 133 his influence on victorian literature was nearly universal in 1855 eliot wrote that there is hardly a superior or active mind of this generation that has not been modified by carlyle s writings with the effect that if his books were all burnt as the grandest of suttees on his funeral pile it would be only like cutting down an oak after its acorns have sown a forest 134 john ruskin was an anglo scottish art critic and philosopher who wrote in a similar vein regarding carlyle as his master 135 the early part of his career was devoted to aesthetics championing turner and the pre raphaelite brotherhood 136 he later turned to ethics expounding his ideas on educational reform and political economy which were to have great influence on practices in england and throughout the world 137 138 matthew arnold was an english poet and critic who is also regarded as a sage writer famous for his criticism of philistinism victorian novel edit see also english novel victorian novel and novel the victorian period 1837 1901 it was in the victorian era 1837 1901 that the novel became the leading literary genre in english 139 women played an important part in this rising popularity both as authors and as readers 140 and monthly serialising of fiction also encouraged this surge in popularity further upheavals which followed the reform act 1832 141 this was in many ways a reaction to rapid industrialization and the social political and economic issues associated with it and was a means of commenting on abuses of government and industry and the suffering of the poor who were not profiting from england s economic prosperity 142 significant early examples of this genre include sybil or the two nations 1845 by benjamin disraeli and charles kingsley s alton locke 1849 charles dickens charles dickens emerged on the literary scene in the late 1830s and soon became probably the most famous novelist in the history of english literature dickens fiercely satirised various aspects of society including the workhouse in oliver twist and the failures of the legal system in bleak house 143 an early rival to dickens was william makepeace thackeray who during the victorian period ranked second only to him but he is now known almost exclusively for vanity fair 1847 the brontë sisters emily charlotte and anne were other significant novelists in the 1840s and 1850s 144 jane eyre 1847 charlotte brontë s most famous work was the first of the sisters novels to achieve success emily brontë s novel was wuthering heights and according to juliet gardiner the vivid sexual passion and power of its language and imagery impressed bewildered and appalled reviewers 145 and led the victorian public and many early reviewers to think that it had been written by a man 146 the tenant of wildfell hall 1848 by anne brontë is now considered to be one of the first feminist novels 147 elizabeth gaskell was also a successful writer and her north and south contrasts the lifestyle in the industrial north of england with the wealthier south 148 anthony trollope was one of the most successful prolific and respected english novelists of the victorian era trollope s novels portray the lives of the landowning and professional classes of early victorian england 149 george eliot pen name of mary ann evans was a major novelist of the mid victorian period her works especially middlemarch 1871 1872 are important examples of literary realism and are admired for their combination of high victorian literary detail with an intellectual breadth that removes them from the narrow geographic confines they often depict 150 george meredith is best remembered for his novels the ordeal of richard feverel 1859 and the egoist 1879 his reputation stood very high well into the 20th century but then seriously declined 151 an interest in rural matters and the changing social and economic situation of the countryside is seen in the novels of thomas hardy 1840 1928 including the mayor of casterbridge 1886 and tess of the d urbervilles 1891 hardy is a victorian realist in the tradition of george eliot 152 and like charles dickens he was also highly critical of much in victorian society another significant late 19th century novelist is george gissing 1857 1903 who published 23 novels between 1880 and 1903 his best known novel is new grub street 1891 although pre dated by john ruskin s the king of the golden river in 1841 the history of the modern fantasy genre is generally said to begin with george macdonald the influential author of the princess and the goblin and phantastes 1858 153 william morris wrote a series of romances in the 1880s and 1890s which are regarded as the first works of high fantasy 154 rudyard kipling wilkie collins epistolary novel the moonstone 1868 is generally considered the first detective novel in the english language 155 robert louis stevenson was an important scottish writer at the end of the nineteenth century author of strange case of dr jekyll and mr hyde 1886 and the historical novel kidnapped 1886 rudyard kipling was a highly versatile writer of novels short stories and poems who gained popularity at the end of the nineteenth century for his stories and poems about life in british india published in collections such as plain tales from the hills the phantom rickshaw and other tales soldiers three and barrack room ballads h g wells s writing career began in the 1890s with science fiction novels like the time machine 1895 and the war of the worlds 1898 which describes an invasion of late victorian england by martians and wells is seen along with frenchman jules verne as a major figure in the development of the science fiction genre he also w...
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