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also often need shielding from micrometeoroids and orbital debris 22 propulsion edit main article spacecraft propulsion spacecraft propulsion is a method that allows a spacecraft to travel through space by generating thrust to push it forward 23 however there is not one universally used propulsion system monopropellant bipropellant ion propulsion etc each propulsion system generates thrust in different ways with each system having advantages and disadvantages most spacecraft propulsion today is based on rocket engines the general idea behind rocket engines is that when an oxidizer meets the fuel source there is explosive release of energy and heat at high speeds which propels the spacecraft forward this happens due to one basic principle known as newton s third law according to newton to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction as the energy and heat is being released from the back of the spacecraft gas particles are pushed that allow the spacecraft to propel forward the main reason behind the use of rocket engines today is because rockets are the most powerful form of propulsion monopropellant edit for a propulsion system to work there is usually an oxidizer line and a fuel line this way the spacecraft propulsion is controlled but in a monopropellant propulsion there is no need for an oxidizer line and only the system only requires the fuel line 24 this works due to the oxidizer being chemically bonded into the fuel molecule itself but for the propulsion system to be controlled the combustion of the fuel can only occur due to the presence of a catalyst this is advantageous due to making the rocket engine lighter less expensive easy to control and more reliable but the disadvantage is that the chemical is dangerous to manufacture store and transport bipropellant edit a bipropellant propulsion system is a rocket engine that uses a liquid propellant 25 this means both the oxidizer and fuel line are in liquid states this system is unique because it requires no ignition system the two liquids would spontaneously combust as soon as they come into contact with each other thus producing the propulsion to push the spacecraft forward the main benefit for having this technology is that these kinds of liquids have relatively high density which allow the volume of the propellent tank to be small therefore increasing space efficacy the downside is the same as that of monopropellant propulsion system dangerous to manufacture store and transport ion edit an ion propulsion system is a type of engine that generates thrust by the means of electron bombardment or the acceleration of ions 26 by shooting high energy electrons to a propellant atom neutrally charged it removes electrons from the propellant atom resulting in the propellant atom becoming positively charged the positively charged ions running at high voltages are guided through positively charged grids that contain thousands of precisely aligned holes the aligned positively charged ions accelerate through a negatively charged accelerator grid that further increases their speed up to 40 kilometres per second 90 000 mph the momentum of these ions provides the thrust to propel the spacecraft the advantage of having this kind of propulsion is that it is incredibly efficient in maintaining constant velocity which is needed for deep space travel however the amount of thrust produced is extremely low and it needs substantial electrical power to operate mechanical devices edit mechanical components often need to be moved for deployment after launch or prior to landing in addition to the use of motors many one time movements are controlled by pyrotechnic devices 27 robotic vs uncrewed spacecraft edit robotic spacecraft are specifically designed system for a specific hostile environment 28 due to their specification for a particular environment it varies greatly in complexity and capabilities while an uncrewed spacecraft is a spacecraft without personnel or crew and is operated by automatic proceeds with an action without human intervention or remote control with human intervention the term uncrewed spacecraft does not imply that the spacecraft is robotic citation needed robotic rover robotic spacecraft use telemetry to radio back to earth acquired data and vehicle status information although generally referred to as remotely controlled or telerobotic the earliest orbital spacecraft such as sputnik 1 and explorer 1 did not receive control signals from earth soon after these first spacecraft command systems were developed to allow remote control from the ground increased autonomy is important for distant probes where the light travel time prevents rapid decision and control from earth newer probes such as cassini huygens and the mars exploration rovers are highly autonomous and use on board computers to operate independently for extended periods of time 29 30 space probes edit main article space probe further information list of solar system probes a space probe is a robotic spacecraft that does not orbit earth but instead explores the outer space space probes have different sets of scientific instruments on board a space probe may approach the moon travel through interplanetary space flyby orbit or land on other planetary bodies or enter interstellar space space probes send collected data to earth space probes can also gather materials from its target and return it to earth 31 32 once a probe has left the vicinity of earth its trajectory will likely take it along an orbit around the sun similar to the earth s orbit to reach another planet the simplest practical method is a hohmann transfer orbit more complex techniques such as gravitational slingshots can be more fuel efficient though they may require the probe to spend more time in transit some high delta v missions such as those with high inclination changes can only be performed using gravitational slingshots a technique using very little propulsion but requiring a considerable amount of time is to follow a trajectory on the interplanetary transport network 33 space telescopes edit main article space telescope further information list of space telescopes a space telescope or space observatory is a telescope in outer space used to observe astronomical objects space telescopes avoid the filtering and distortion of electromagnetic radiation which they observe and avoid light pollution which ground based observatories encounter they are divided into two types satellites which map the entire sky astronomical survey and satellites which focus on selected astronomical objects or parts of the sky and beyond space telescopes are distinct from earth imaging satellites which point toward earth for satellite imaging applied for weather analysis reconnaissance and other types of information gathering cargo spacecraft edit the six currently active space station cargo vehicles clockwise from top left progress cargo dragon 2 htv x cygnus xl enhanced cygnus tianzhou further information comparison of space station cargo vehicles cargo or resupply spacecraft are robotic vehicles designed to transport supplies such as food propellant and equipment to crewed space stations this distinguishes them from space probes which are primarily focused on scientific exploration automated cargo spacecraft have been servicing space stations since 1978 supporting missions like salyut 6 salyut 7 mir the international space station iss and the tiangong space station currently the iss relies on four types of cargo spacecraft the japanese htv x the russian progress 34 along with the american cargo dragon 2 35 36 and cygnus 37 the european automated transfer vehicle was previously used between 2008 and 2015 38 china s tiangong space station is solely supplied by the tianzhou 39 40 41 future cargo spacecraft edit the american dream chaser is under development from 2004 as of 2025 its first orbital test flight is expected in 2026 but it is no longer contracted to resupply missions to the iss 42 since 2023 esa has been pursuing the leo cargo return service initiative to develop one or more cargo spacecraft capable of returning to earth 43 china is developing two new cargo spacecraft to complement the tianzhou in supporting the tiangong space station qingzhou is a small pressurized spacecraft with no heat shield while haolong is a reusable spaceplane 44 45 46 see also edit spaceflight portal beacon mode service geosynchronous satellite human spaceflight list of passive satellites timeline of solar system exploration references edit asif siddiqi sputnik and the soviet space challenge university press of florida 2003 isbn 081302627x p 96 whitehouse david 28 october 2002 first dog in space died within hours bbc news world edition archived from the original on 17 july 2013 retrieved 10 may 2013 the animal launched on a one way trip on board sputnik 2 in november 1957 was said to have died painlessly in orbit about a week after blast off now it has been 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original pdf on 29 october 2009 retrieved 10 may 2013 communication with earth is only twice per sol martian day so the rover is on its own autonomous for much of its journey across the martian landscape scientists send commands to the rover in a morning uplink and gather data in an afternoon downlink during an uplink the rover is told where to go but not exactly how to get there instead the command contains the coordinates of waypoints toward a desired destination the rover must navigate from waypoint to waypoint without human help the rover has to use its brain and its eyes for these instances the brain of each rover is the onboard computer software that tells the rover how to navigate based on what the hazcams hazard avoidance cameras see it is programmed with a given set of responses to a given set of circumstances this is called autonomy and hazard avoidance what is a space probe nasa gov archived from the original on 30 august 2021 retrieved 26 february 2023 space probes 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