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ontrol of the italian peninsula 3 149 150 in 264 bce it challenged its main rival carthage to a fight for sicily starting the punic wars 3 188 a truce was signed in 241 bce with rome gaining corsica and sardinia in addition to sicily 3 188 in 218 bce the carthaginian army general hannibal marched out of iberia towards italy crossing the alps with his war elephants 3 189 after 15 years of fighting the roman republican army beat him and then sent troops against carthage itself defeating it in 202 bce 3 190 the second punic war alone cost rome 100 000 casualties 3 191 in 146 bce carthage was finally destroyed completely at the end of the third punic war 3 193 rome suffered from various internal disturbances and instabilities in 133 bce tiberius gracchus was killed alongside hundreds of supporters after trying to redistribute public land to the poor under the lex sempronia agraria 3 194 the social war 91 88 bce was caused by neighbouring cities trying to secure themselves the benefits of roman citizenship 3 194 in 82 bce general sulla captured power violently ending the roman republic and becoming a dictator 3 195 following his death new power struggles emerged and in caesar s civil war 49 46 bce julius caesar and pompey fought over the empire with the former winning 3 196 after the assassination of julius caesar in 44 bce a second civil war broke out between his potential heirs mark antony and augustus the latter gaining the new title of roman emperor 3 196 this then led to the pax romana a long period of peace in the roman empire 3 197 the quarrels between the ptolemaic kingdom the seleucid empire the parthian empire and the kingdom of pontus in the near east allowed the romans to expand up to the euphrates 3 page needed during augustus reign the rhine danube and the sahara became the other borders of the empire 3 210 the population reached about 60 million 3 205 political instability in rome grew emperor caligula 37 41 ce was murdered by the praetorian guard to replace him with claudius 41 53 while his successor nero 54 68 was rumored to have burned rome down 3 213 the average reign from his death to philip the arab 244 249 was six years 3 213 nevertheless external expansion continued with trajan 98 117 invading dacia parthia and arabia 3 214 its only formidable enemy was the parthian empire 3 215 migrating peoples started exerting pressure on the borders of the empire in the migration period 3 218 the drying climate of central asia forced the huns to move and in 370 they crossed don and soon after the danube forcing the goths on the move which in turn caused other germanic tribes to overrun roman borders 3 244 245 in 293 diocletian 284 305 appointed three rulers for different parts of the empire 3 249 it was formally divided in 395 by theodosius i 379 395 into the western roman and byzantine empires 3 252 in 406 the northern border of the former was overrun by the alemanni vandals and suebi 3 253 in 408 the visigoths invaded italy and then sacked rome in 410 3 253 the final collapse of the western empire came in 476 with the deposal of romulus augustulus 475 476 3 254 indian subcontinent edit see also middle kingdoms of india built around the indus river by 3300 bce the indus valley civilization located in modern day india pakistan and afghanistan had formed the civilization s boundaries extended to 600 km from the arabian sea 9 after its cities mohenjo daro and harappa were abandoned around 1900 bce no political power is known to have replaced it 3 page needed states began to form in 12th century bce with the formation of kuru kingdom which was first state level administration in indian subcontinent in 6th century bce with the emergence of mahajanapadas 3 82 out of sixteen such states four strong ones emerged kosala magadha vatsa and avanti with magadha dominating the rest by the mid fifth century 3 115 the magadha then transformed into the nanda empire under mahapadma nanda 345 321 bce extending from the gangetic plains to the hindu kush and the deccan plateau 3 153 the empire was however overtaken by chandragupta maurya 324 298 bce turning it into the maurya empire 3 153 he defended against alexander s invasion from the west and received control of the hindu kush mountain passes in a peace treaty signed in 303 bce 3 153 by the time of his grandson ashoka s rule the empire stretched from zagros mountains to the brahmaputra river 3 154 the empire contained a population of 50 to 60 million governed by a system of provinces ruled by governor princes with a capital in pataliputra 3 155 after ashoka s death the empire had begun to decline with kashmir in the north shunga and satavahana in the centre and kalinga as well as pandya in the south becoming independent 3 183 in to this power vacuum the yuezhi were able to establish the new kushan empire in 30 ce 3 185 the gupta empire was founded by chandragupta i 320 335 which in sixty years expanded from the ganges to the bay of bengal and the indus river following the downfall of the kushan empire 3 268 gupta governance was similar to that of the maurya 3 269 following wars with the hephthalites and other problems the empire fell by 550 3 271 qin dynasty china edit see also ancient china in the north china plain the yellow river allowed the rise of states such as wei and qi 3 42 43 this area was first unified by the shang dynasty around 1600 bce and replaced by the zhou dynasty in the battle of muye in 1046 bce with reportedly millions taking part in the fighting 3 4 439 the victors were however hit by internal unrest soon after 3 76 the main rivals of the zhou were the dongyi in shandong the xianyun in ordos the guifang in shanxi as well as the chu in the middle reaches of the yangtze 3 78 beginning in the eighth century bce china fell into chaos for five centuries during the spring and autumn 771 476 bce and warring states periods 476 221 bce 3 81 during the latter period clarification needed the jin dynasty split into the wei zhao and han states while the rest of the north china plain was composed of the chu qin qi and yan states while the zhou remained in the centre with largely ceremonial power 3 157 while the zhao had an advantage at first the qin ended up defeating them in 260 bce with about half a million soldiers fighting on each side at the battle of changping 3 157 158 the other states tried to form an alliance against the qin but were defeated 3 171 in 221 bce the qin dynasty was established with a population of about 40 million with a capital of 350 000 in linzi 3 158 under the leadership of qin shi huang the dynasty initiated reforms such as establishing territorial administrative units infrastructure projects including the great wall of china and uniform chinese characters 3 172 however after his death and burial with the terracotta army the empire started falling apart when the chu and han started fighting over a power vacuum left by a weak heir with the han dynasty rising to power in 204 bce 3 173 under the han the population of china rose to 50 million with 400 000 in the capital chang an and with territorial expansion to korea vietnam and tien shan 3 175 expeditions were also sent against the xiongnu and to secure the hexi corridor the nanyue kingdom was annexed and hainan and taiwan conquered 3 180 the chinese pressure on the xiongnu forced them towards the west leading to the exodus of the yuezhi who in turn pillaged the capital of bactria 3 182 this then led to their new kushan empire 3 185 the end of the han dynasty in 220 ce came following internal upheavals with its split into the shu wu and wei states 3 following a brief unification under the jin dynasty 266 420 china was divided again in 304 due to the rebellion of the five barbarians 304 316 northern china and sichuan were ruled by the sixteen kingdoms while the jin relocated south of the yangtze river by 439 the xianbei led northern wei unified the north while the jin was usurped by the liu song transitioning into the northern and southern dynasties period china would be unified by the sui dynasty in 589 ce 3 260 americas edit see also pre columbian era the olmecs were the first major indigenous american culture with some smaller ones such as the chavín culture amongst mainly hunter gatherers 3 83 the olmecs were limited by the dense forests and the long rainy season of the olmec heartland as well as the lack of horses 3 84 post classical era edit main article post classical history africa edit the coast of east africa contained a string of trading cities connected to kingdoms in the interior 3 423 the horn of africa was dominated by the ethiopian empire by the 13th and 14th centuries 3 423 south from it were the swahili cities of mogadishu mombasa zanzibar kilwa and sofala 3 424 by the 14th century kilwa had conquered most of the others 3 424 it also engaged in campaigns against the inland power of great zimbabwe 3 424 great zimbabwe was itself overtaken in trade by its rival the kingdom of mutapa 3 424 towards the north the empire of kitara dominated the african great lakes in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 3 425 towards the atlantic coast the kingdom of kongo was of regional importance around the same time 3 425 the gulf of guinea had the kingdom of benin 3 425 to the north in the sahel there was a tripartite competition between the mossi kingdoms the songhai empire as well as the mali empire with the latter declining in the fifteenth century 3 426 americas edit the tiwanaku polity in western bolivia was based in the southern lake titicaca basin its influence extended into present day peru and chile and lasted from around 600 to 1000 ad 10 chimor was the political grouping of the chimú culture that ruled the northern coast of peru beginning around 850 and ending around 1470 chimor was the largest kingdom in the late intermediate period encompassing 1 000 kilometres 620 mi of coastline the aymara kingdoms in turn were a group of native polities that flourished towards the late intermediate period after the fall of the tiwanaku empire whose societies were geographically located in the qullaw they were developed between 1150 and 1477 before the kingdoms disappeared due to the military conquest of the inca empire beginning around 250 ad the maya civilization developed many city states linked by a complex trade network in the maya lowlands two great rivals the cities of tikal and calakmul became powerful the period also saw the intrusive intervention of the central mexican city of teotihuacan in maya dynastic politics in the 9th century there was a widespread political collapse in the central maya region resulting in internecine warfare the abandonment of cities and a northward shift of population the postclassic period saw the rise of chichen itza in the north and the expansion of the aggressive kʼicheʼ kingdom in the guatemalan highlands in the 16th century the spanish empire colonised the mesoamerican region and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of nojpetén the last maya city in 1697 the aztec empire was formed as an alliance of three nahua altepetl city states mexico tenochtitlan tetzcoco and tlacopan from the victorious factions of a civil war fought between the city of azcapotzalco and its former tributary provinces these three city states ruled the area in and around the valley of mexico from 1428 until the combined forces of the spanish conquistadores and their native allies under hernán cortés defeated them in 1521 despite the initial conception of the empire as an alliance of three self governed city states tenochtitlan quickly became dominant militarily 11 by the time the spanish arrived in 1519 the lands of the alliance were effectively ruled from tenochtitlan while the other partners in the alliance had taken subsidiary roles the tarascan state was the second largest state in mesoamerica at the time 12 it was founded in the early 14th century asia edit the tang dynasty in 700 ce when china entered the sui dynasty 13 the government changed and expanded in its borders as the many separate bureaucracies unified under one banner 14 this evolved into the tang dynasty when li yuan took control of china in 626 15 by now the chinese borders had expanded from eastern china up north into the tang empire 16 the tang empire fell apart in 907 and split into ten regional kingdoms and five dynasties with vague borders 17 fifty three years after the separation of the tang empire china entered the song dynasty under the rule of chao k uang although the borders of this country expanded they were never as large as those of the tang dynasty and were constantly being redefined due to attacks from the neighboring tartar mongol people known as the khitan tribes 18 the mongol empire emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes in the mongol homeland under the leadership of genghis khan c 1162 1227 whom a council proclaimed as the ruler of all mongols in 1206 the empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants who sent out invading armies in every direction 19 20 the vast transcontinental empire connected the east with the west the pacific to the mediterranean in an enforced pax mongolica allowing the dissemination and exchange of trade technologies commodities and ideologies across eurasia 21 22 the mongol invasion halted china s economic development for over 150 years decisively changing the balance of power in the eastern hemisphere 3 361 the empire began to split due to wars over succession as the grandchildren of genghis khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir ögedei or from one of his other sons such as tolui chagatai or jochi the toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of ögedeid and chagataid factions but disputes continued among the descendants of tolui after möngke khan died 1259 rival kurultai councils simultaneously elected different successors the brothers ariq böke and kublai khan who fought each other in the toluid civil war 1260 1264 and also dealt with challenges from the descendants of other sons of genghis 23 24 kublai successfully took power but civil war ensued as he sought unsuccessfully to regain control of the chagatayid and ögedeid families by the time of kublai s death in 1294 the mongol empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives the golden horde khanate in the northwest the chagatai khanate in central asia the ilkhanate in the southwest and the yuan dynasty in the east based in modern day beijing 25 in 1304 the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of the yuan dynasty 26 27 but in 1368 the han chinese ming dynasty took over the mongol capital the genghisid rulers of the yuan retreated to the mongolian homeland and continued to rule there as the northern yuan dynasty the ming dynasty the largest army in the world with almost a million soldiers 3 419 it was therefore able to conduct military campaigns ...
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