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s since eniac in 1945 computers have advanced enormously with modern socs such as the snapdragon 865 being the size of a coin while also being hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than eniac integrating billions of transistors and consuming only a few watts of power mobile computers the first mobile computers were heavy and ran from mains power the 50 lb 23 kg ibm 5100 was an early example later portables such as the osborne 1 and compaq portable were considerably lighter but still needed to be plugged in the first laptops such as the grid compass removed this requirement by incorporating batteries and with the continued miniaturization of computing resources and advancements in portable battery life portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s 89 the same developments allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular mobile phones by the early 2000s these smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and recently became the dominant computing device on the market 90 these are powered by system on a chip socs which are complete computers on a microchip the size of a coin 88 types see also classes of computers computers can be classified in a number of different ways including by architecture analog computer digital computer hybrid computer harvard architecture von neumann architecture complex instruction set computer reduced instruction set computer by size form factor and purpose supercomputer mainframe computer minicomputer term no longer used server rackmount server blade server tower server personal computer workstation microcomputer term no longer used home computer desktop computer tower desktop slimline desktop multimedia computer non linear editing system computers video editing pcs and the like gaming computer all in one pc nettop small form factor pcs mini pcs home theater pc keyboard computer portable computer thin client internet appliance laptop desktop replacement computer gaming laptop rugged laptop 2 in 1 pc ultrabook chromebook subnotebook netbook mobile computers tablet computer smartphone ultra mobile pc pocket pc palmtop pc handheld pc wearable computer smartwatch smartglasses single board computer plug computer stick pc programmable logic controller computer on module system on module system in a package system on chip also known as an application processor or ap if it lacks circuitry such as radio circuitry microcontroller hardware main articles computer hardware personal computer hardware central processing unit and microprocessor video demonstrating the standard components of a slimline computer the term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects circuits computer chips graphic cards sound cards memory ram motherboard displays power supplies cables keyboards printers and mice input devices are all hardware history of computing hardware main article history of computing hardware first generation mechanical electromechanical calculators pascal s calculator arithmometer difference engine quevedo s analytical machines programmable devices jacquard loom analytical engine ibm ascc harvard mark i harvard mark ii ibm ssec z1 z2 z3 second generation vacuum tubes calculators atanasoff berry computer ibm 604 univac 60 univac 120 programmable devices colossus eniac manchester baby edsac manchester mark 1 ferranti pegasus ferranti mercury csirac edvac univac i ibm 701 ibm 702 ibm 650 z22 third generation discrete transistors and ssi msi lsi integrated circuits mainframes ibm 7090 ibm 7080 ibm system 360 bunch minicomputer hp 2116a ibm system 32 ibm system 36 linc pdp 8 pdp 11 desktop computer hp 9100 fourth generation vlsi integrated circuits minicomputer vax ibm as 400 4 bit microcomputer intel 4004 intel 4040 8 bit microcomputer intel 8008 intel 8080 motorola 6800 motorola 6809 mos technology 6502 zilog z80 16 bit microcomputer intel 8088 zilog z8000 wdc 65816 65802 32 bit microcomputer intel 80386 pentium motorola 68000 arm 64 bit microcomputer c alpha mips pa risc powerpc sparc x86 64 armv8 a embedded computer intel 8048 intel 8051 personal computer desktop computer home computer laptop computer personal digital assistant pda portable computer tablet pc wearable computer theoretical experimental quantum computer ibm q system one chemical computer dna computing optical computer spintronics based computer wetware organic computer other hardware topics peripheral device input output input mouse keyboard joystick image scanner webcam graphics tablet microphone output monitor printer loudspeaker both floppy disk drive hard disk drive optical disc drive teleprinter computer buses short range rs 232 scsi pci usb long range computer networking ethernet atm fddi a general purpose computer has four main components the arithmetic logic unit alu the control unit the memory and the input and output devices collectively termed i o these parts are interconnected by buses often made of groups of wires inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch each circuit represents a bit binary digit of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a 1 and when off it represents a 0 in positive logic representation the circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits input devices when unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices the data is processed and sent to output devices the input devices may be hand operated or automated the act of processing is mainly regulated by the cpu some examples of input devices are computer keyboard digital camera digital video graphics tablet image scanner joystick microphone mouse overlay keyboard real time clock trackball touchscreen light pen output devices the means through which computer gives output are known as output devices some examples of output devices are computer monitor printer pc speaker projector sound card video card control unit main articles cpu design and control unit diagram showing how a particular mips architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system the control unit often called a control system or central controller manages the computer s various components it reads and interprets decodes the program instructions transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer d control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance a key component common to all cpus is the program counter a special memory cell a register that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from e the control system s function is as follows this is a simplified description and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of cpu read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory or perhaps from an input device the location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code provide the necessary data to an alu or register if the instruction requires an alu or specialized hardware to complete instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation write the result from the alu back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device jump back to step 1 since the program counter is conceptually just another set of memory cells it can be changed by calculations done in the alu adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program instructions that modify the program counter are often known as jumps and allow for loops instructions that are repeated by the computer and often conditional instruction execution both examples of control flow the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program and indeed in some more complex cpu designs there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen central processing unit cpu main articles central processing unit and microprocessor the control unit alu and registers are collectively known as a central processing unit cpu early cpus were composed of many separate components since the 1970s cpus have typically been constructed on a single mos integrated circuit chip called a microprocessor arithmetic logic unit alu main article arithmetic logic unit the alu is capable of performing two classes of operations arithmetic and logic 91 the set of arithmetic operations that a particular alu supports may be limited to addition and subtraction or might include multiplication division trigonometry functions such as sine cosine etc and square roots some can operate only on whole numbers integers while others use floating point to represent real numbers albeit with limited precision however any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform therefore any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation although it will take more time to do so if its alu does not directly support the operation an alu may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values true or false depending on whether one is equal to greater than or less than the other is 64 greater than 65 logic operations involve boolean logic and or xor and not these can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic superscalar computers may contain multiple alus allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously 92 graphics processors and computers with simd and mimd features often contain alus that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices memory main articles computer memory and computer data storage magnetic core memory using magnetic cores was the computer memory of choice in the 1960s until it was replaced by semiconductor memory using mos memory cells a computer s memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read each cell has a numbered address and can store a single number the computer can be instructed to put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357 or to add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595 the information stored in memory may represent practically anything letters numbers even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease since the cpu does not differentiate between different types of information it is the software s responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers in almost all modern computers each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits called a byte each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers 2 8 256 either from 0 to 255 or 128 to 127 to store larger numbers several consecutive bytes may be used typically two four or eight when negative numbers are required they are usually stored in two s complement notation other arrangements are possible but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts a computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory the cpu contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area there are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of cpu registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed as data is constantly being worked on reducing the need to access main memory which is often slow compared to the alu and control units greatly increases the computer s speed computer main memory comes in two principal varieties random access memory or ram read only memory or rom ram can be read and written to anytime the cpu commands it but rom is preloaded with data and software that never changes therefore the cpu can only read from it rom is typically used to store the computer s initial start up instructions in general the contents of ram are erased when the power to the computer is turned off but rom retains its data indefinitely in a pc the rom contains a specialized program called the bios that orchestrates loading the computer s operating system from the hard disk drive into ram whenever the computer is turned on or reset in embedded computers which frequently do not have disk drives all of the required software may be stored in rom software stored in rom is often called firmware because it is notionally more like hardware than software flash memory blurs the distinction between rom and ram as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable it is typically much slower than conventional rom and ram however so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary f in more sophisticated computers there may be one or more ram cache memories which are slower than registers but faster than main memory generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically often without the need for any intervention on the programmer s part input output i o main article input output hard disk drives are common storage devices used with computers i o is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world 94 devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals 95 on a typical personal computer peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse and output devices such as the display and printer hard disk drives floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices computer networking is another form of i o i o devices are often complex computers in their own right with their own cpu and memory a graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3d graphics citation needed modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main cpu in performing i o a 2016 era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry multitasking main article computer multitasking while a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs sim...
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