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terminal for electrolytic cells where electrolysis occurs the cathode is the negative terminal 62 electrolyte a substance that conducts charged ions from one electrode to the other in a fuel cell battery or electrolyzer 62 fuel cell stack individual fuel cells connected in a series fuel cells are stacked to increase voltage 62 matrix something within or from which something else originates develops or takes form 64 membrane the separating layer in a fuel cell that acts as electrolyte an ion exchanger as well as a barrier film separating the gases in the anode and cathode compartments of the fuel cell 62 molten carbonate fuel cell mcfc a type of fuel cell that contains a molten carbonate electrolyte carbonate ions co 3 2 are transported from the cathode to the anode operating temperatures are typically near 650 c 62 phosphoric acid fuel cell pafc a type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte consists of concentrated phosphoric acid h 3 po 4 protons h are transported from the anode to the cathode the operating temperature range is generally 160 220 c 62 proton exchange membrane fuel cell pem a fuel cell incorporating a solid polymer membrane used as its electrolyte protons h are transported from the anode to the cathode the operating temperature range is generally 60 100 c for low temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell lt pemfc 62 pem fuel cell with operating temperature of 120 200 c is called high temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell ht pemfc 65 solid oxide fuel cell sofc a type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte is a solid nonporous metal oxide typically zirconium oxide zro 2 treated with y 2 o 3 and o 2 is transported from the cathode to the anode any co in the reformate gas is oxidized to co 2 at the anode temperatures of operation are typically 800 1 000 c 62 solution 66 an act or the process by which a solid liquid or gaseous substance is homogeneously mixed with a liquid or sometimes a gas or solid a homogeneous mixture formed by this process especially a single phase liquid system the condition of being dissolved efficiency of leading fuel cell types edit theoretical maximum efficiency edit the energy efficiency of a system or device that converts energy is measured by the ratio of the amount of useful energy put out by the system output energy to the total amount of energy that is put in input energy or by useful output energy as a percentage of the total input energy in the case of fuel cells useful output energy is measured in electrical energy produced by the system input energy is the energy stored in the fuel according to the u s department of energy fuel cells are generally between 40 and 60 energy efficient 67 this is higher than some other systems for energy generation for example the internal combustion engine of a car can be about 43 energy efficient 68 69 steam power plants usually achieve efficiencies of 30 40 70 while combined cycle gas turbine and steam plants can achieve efficiencies above 60 71 72 in combined heat and power chp systems the waste heat produced by the primary power cycle whether fuel cell nuclear fission or combustion is captured and put to use increasing the efficiency of the system to up to 85 90 6 the theoretical maximum efficiency of any type of power generation system is never reached in practice and it does not consider other steps in power generation such as production transportation and storage of fuel and conversion of the electricity into mechanical power however this calculation allows the comparison of different types of power generation the theoretical maximum efficiency of a fuel cell approaches 100 73 while the theoretical maximum efficiency of internal combustion engines is approximately 58 74 in practice edit values are given from 40 for acidic 50 for molten carbonate to 60 for alkaline solid oxide and pem fuel cells 75 fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery 76 except as hydrogen but in some applications such as stand alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system as of 2019 90 of hydrogen was used for oil refining chemicals and fertilizer production where hydrogen is required for the haber bosch process 77 and as of 2024 more than 95 hydrogen was still produced using steam methane reformation about 95 is grey hydrogen most of the rest is blue hydrogen and only about 1 is green hydrogen a process that emits carbon dioxide 78 in addition the overall efficiency electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity of such plants known as round trip efficiency using pure hydrogen and pure oxygen can be from 35 up to 50 percent depending on gas density and other conditions 79 the electrolyzer fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen and is therefore suited for long term storage solid oxide fuel cells produce heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen the ceramic can run as hot as 800 c 1 470 f this heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power m chp application when the heat is captured total efficiency can reach 80 90 at the unit but does not consider production and distribution losses chp units are being developed today for the european home market professor jeremy p meyers in the electrochemical society journal interface in 2008 wrote while fuel cells are efficient relative to combustion engines they are not as efficient as batteries primarily due to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction and the oxygen evolution reaction should the hydrogen be formed by electrolysis of water t hey make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid or when fuel can be provided continuously for applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start ups where zero emissions are a requirement as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses and where hydrogen is considered an acceptable reactant a pem fuel cell is becoming an increasingly attractive choice if exchanging batteries is inconvenient 80 in 2013 military organizations were evaluating fuel cells to determine if they could significantly reduce the battery weight carried by soldiers 81 in vehicles edit in a fuel cell vehicle the tank to wheel efficiency is greater than 45 at low loads 82 and shows average values of about 36 when a driving cycle like the nedc new european driving cycle is used as test procedure 83 the comparable nedc value for a diesel vehicle is 22 in 2008 honda released a demonstration fuel cell electric vehicle the honda fcx clarity with fuel stack claiming a 60 tank to wheel efficiency 84 it is also important to take losses due to fuel production transportation and storage into account fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power plant to wheel efficiency of 22 if the hydrogen is stored as high pressure gas and 17 if it is stored as liquid hydrogen 85 applications edit type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion this example in dry dock is operated by the german navy power edit see also hydrogen fuel cell power plant stationary fuel cells are used for commercial industrial and residential primary and backup power generation fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations such as spacecraft remote weather stations large parks communications centers rural locations including research stations and in certain military applications a fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight and have no major moving parts because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99 9999 reliability 86 this equates to less than one minute of downtime in a six year period 86 since fuel cell electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves but rather rely on external storage units they can be successfully applied in large scale energy storage rural areas being one example 87 there are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary but most are between 40 and 60 energy efficient 6 however when the fuel cell s waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85 6 this is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants which are only about one third energy efficient 88 assuming production at scale fuel cells could save 20 40 on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems 89 fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution other than co 2 for every 1 000 kw h produced compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems 90 fuel cells also produce 97 less nitrogen oxide emissions than conventional coal fired power plants one such pilot program is operating on stuart island in washington state there the stuart island energy initiative 91 has built a complete closed loop system solar panels power an electrolyzer which makes hydrogen the hydrogen is stored in a 500 u s gallon 1 900 l tank at 200 pounds per square inch 1 400 kpa and runs a relion fuel cell to provide full electric back up to the off the grid residence another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in hempstead ny 92 fuel cells can be used with low quality gas from landfills or waste water treatment plants to generate power and lower methane emissions a 2 8 mw fuel cell plant in california is said to be the largest of the type 93 small scale sub 5kwhr fuel cells are being developed for use in residential off grid deployment 94 cogeneration edit see also combined cycle hydrogen power plant combined heat and power chp fuel cell systems including micro combined heat and power microchp systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes see home fuel cell office building and factories the system generates constant electric power selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat as the result chp systems have the potential to save primary energy as they can make use of waste heat which is generally rejected by thermal energy conversion systems 95 a typical capacity range of home fuel cell is 1 3 kw el 4 8 kw th 96 97 chp systems linked to absorption chillers use their waste heat for refrigeration 98 the waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during the summer directly into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building the university of minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system 99 100 co generation systems can reach 85 efficiency 40 60 electric and the remainder as thermal 6 phosphoric acid fuel cells pafc comprise the largest segment of existing chp products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90 101 102 molten carbonate mcfc and solid oxide fuel cells sofc are also used for combined heat and power generation and have electrical energy efficiencies around 60 103 disadvantages of co generation systems include slow ramping up and down rates high cost and short lifetime 104 105 also their need to have a hot water storage tank to smooth out the thermal heat production was a serious disadvantage in the domestic market place where space in domestic properties is at a great premium 106 delta ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64 of global sales the fuel cell micro combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012 81 the japanese ene farm project stated that 34 213 pemfc and 2 224 sofc were installed in the period 2012 2014 30 000 units on lng and 6 000 on lpg 107 fuel cell electric vehicles fcevs edit main articles fuel cell vehicle hydrogen vehicle list of fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell train configuration of components in a fuel cell car toyota mirai element one fuel cell vehicle automobiles edit four fuel cell electric vehicles have been introduced for commercial lease and sale the honda clarity toyota mirai hyundai ix35 fcev and the hyundai nexo by year end 2019 about 18 000 fcevs had been leased or sold worldwide 108 109 fuel cell electric vehicles feature an average range of 505 km 314 mi between refuelings 110 and can be refueled in about 5 minutes 111 the u s department of energy s fuel cell technology program states that as of 2011 fuel cells achieved 53 59 efficiency at one quarter power and 42 53 vehicle efficiency at full power 112 and a durability of over 120 000 km 75 000 miles with less than 10 degradation 113 in a 2017 well to wheels simulation analysis that did not address the economics and market constraints general motors and its partners estimated that for an equivalent journey a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could use about 40 less energy and emit 45 less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle 114 in 2015 toyota introduced its first fuel cell vehicle the mirai at a price of 57 000 115 hyundai introduced the limited production hyundai ix35 fcev under a lease agreement 116 in 2016 honda started leasing the honda clarity fuel cell 117 in 2018 hyundai introduced the hyundai nexo replacing the hyundai ix35 fcev in 2020 toyota introduced the second generation of its mirai brand improving fuel efficiency and expanding range compared to the original sedan 2014 model 118 in 2024 mirai owners filed a class action lawsuit against toyota in california over the lack of availability of hydrogen for fuel cell electric cars alleging among other things fraudulent concealment and misrepresentation as well as violations of california s false advertising law and breaches of implied warranty 119 the same year hyundai recalled all 1 600 nexo vehicles sold in the us to that time due to a risk of fuel leaks and fire from a faulty pressure relief device 120 criticism edit some commentators believe that hydrogen fuel cell cars will never become economically competitive with other technologies 121 122 123 or that it will take decades for them to become profitable 80 124 elon musk ceo of battery electric vehicle maker tesla motors stated in 2015 that fuel cells for use in cars will never be commercially viable because of the inefficiency of producing transporting and storing hydrogen and the flammability of the gas among other reasons 125 in 2012 lux research inc issued a report that stated the dream of a hydrogen economy is no nearer it concluded that capital cost will limit adoption to a mere 5 9 gw by 2030 providing a nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption except in niche applications the analysis concluded that by 2030 pem stationary market will reach 1 billion while the vehicle market including forklifts will reach a total of 2 billion 124 other analyses cite the lack of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure in the u s as an ongoing challenge to fuel cell electric vehicle 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