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language contact the languages may be genetically unrelated or only distantly related but the sprachbund characteristics might give a false appearance of relatedness a grouping of languages that share features can only be defined as a sprachbund if the features are shared for some reason other than the genetic history of the languages without knowledge of the history of a regional group of similar languages it may be difficult to determine whether sharing indicates a language family or a sprachbund 1 history edit in a 1904 paper jan baudouin de courtenay emphasised the need to distinguish between language similarities arising from a genetic relationship rodstvo and those arising from convergence due to language contact srodstvo 2 3 nikolai trubetzkoy introduced the russian term языковой союз yazykovoy soyuz language union in a 1923 article 4 in a paper presented to the first international congress of linguists in 1928 he used a german calque of this term sprachbund defining it as a group of languages with similarities in syntax morphological structure cultural vocabulary and sound systems but without systematic sound correspondences shared basic morphology or shared basic vocabulary 5 3 later workers starting with trubetzkoy s colleague roman jakobson 6 7 have relaxed the requirement of similarities in all four of the areas stipulated by trubetzkoy 8 9 10 a rigorous set of principles for what evidence is valid for establishing a linguistic area has been presented by campbell kaufman and smith stark 11 examples edit the balkans edit main article balkan sprachbund the idea of areal convergence is commonly attributed to jernej kopitar s description in 1830 of albanian bulgarian and romanian as giving the impression of nur eine sprachform mit dreierlei sprachmaterie lit only one language form with three kinds of language material 12 which has been rendered by victor friedman as one grammar with the sic three lexicons 13 14 the balkan sprachbund comprises albanian romanian the south slavic languages of the southern balkans bulgarian macedonian and to a lesser degree serbo croatian greek balkan turkish and romani all but one of these are indo european languages but from very divergent branches and turkish is a turkic language yet they have exhibited several signs of grammatical convergence such as avoidance of the infinitive future tense formation and others the same features are not found in other languages that are otherwise closely related such as the other romance languages in relation to romanian and the other slavic languages such as polish in relation to bulgaro macedonian 9 14 mainland southeast asia edit main article mainland southeast asia linguistic area languages of the mainland southeast asia linguistic area have such great surface similarity that early linguists tended to group them all into a single family although the modern consensus places them into numerous unrelated families the area stretches from thailand to china and is home to speakers of languages of the sino tibetan hmong mien or miao yao tai kadai austronesian represented by chamic and mon khmer families 15 neighbouring languages across these families though presumed unrelated often have similar features which are believed to have spread by diffusion a well known example is the similar tone systems in sinitic languages sino tibetan hmong mien tai languages kadai and vietnamese austroasiatic most of these languages passed through an earlier stage with three tones on most syllables but no tonal distinctions on checked syllables ending in a stop consonant which was followed by a tone split where the distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants disappeared but in compensation the number of tones doubled these parallels led to confusion over the classification of these languages until andré georges haudricourt showed in 1954 that tone was not an invariant feature by demonstrating that vietnamese tones corresponded to certain final consonants in other languages of the mon khmer family and proposed that tone in the other languages had a similar origin 15 similarly the unrelated khmer mon khmer cham austronesian and lao kadai languages have almost identical vowel systems many languages in the region are of the isolating or analytic type with mostly monosyllabic morphemes and little use of inflection or affixes though a number of mon khmer languages have derivational morphology shared syntactic features include classifiers object verb order and topic comment structure though in each case there are exceptions in branches of one or more families 15 indian subcontinent edit in a classic 1956 paper titled india as a linguistic area murray emeneau laid the groundwork for the general acceptance of the concept of a sprachbund in the paper emeneau observed that the subcontinent s dravidian and indo aryan languages shared a number of features that were not inherited from a common source but were areal features the result of diffusion during sustained contact these include retroflex consonants echo words subject object verb word order discourse markers and the quotative 16 emeneau specified the tools to establish that language and culture had fused for centuries on the indian soil to produce an integrated mosaic of structural convergence of four distinct language families indo aryan dravidian munda and tibeto burman this concept provided scholarly substance for explaining the underlying indian ness of apparently divergent cultural and linguistic patterns with his further contributions this area has now become a major field of research in language contact and convergence 9 17 18 northeast asia edit some linguists such as matthias castrén g j ramstedt nicholas poppe and pentti aalto supported the idea that the mongolic turkic and tungusic families of asia and some small parts of europe have a common ancestry in a controversial group they call altaic citation needed koreanic japonic and ainu languages which are also hypothetically related according to some scholars like william george aston shōsaburō kanazawa samuel martin and sergei starostin are sometimes included as part of the purported altaic family this latter hypothesis was supported by people including roy andrew miller john c street and karl heinrich menges gerard clauson gerhard doerfer juha janhunen stefan georg and others dispute or reject this citation needed the latter hypothesis was renamed by martine robbeets as transeurasian languages 19 a common alternative explanation for similarities among the altaic languages such as vowel harmony and agglutination is that they are due to areal diffusion 20 the qinghai gansu sprachbund in the northeastern part of the tibetan plateau spanning the chinese provinces of qinghai and gansu is an area of interaction between varieties of northwest mandarin chinese amdo tibetan and mongolic and turkic languages citation needed europe edit main article standard average european standard average european sae is a concept introduced in 1939 by benjamin whorf to group the modern indo european languages of europe which shared common features 21 whorf argued that these languages were characterized by a number of similarities including syntax and grammar vocabulary and its use as well as the relationship between contrasting words and their origins idioms and word order which all made them stand out from many other language groups around the world which do not share these similarities in essence creating a continental sprachbund his point was to argue that the disproportionate degree of knowledge of sae languages biased linguists towards considering grammatical forms to be highly natural or even universal when in fact they were only peculiar to the sae language group whorf likely considered romance and west germanic to form the core of the sae i e the literary languages of europe which have seen substantial cultural influence from latin during the medieval period the north germanic and balto slavic languages tend to be more peripheral members alexander gode who was instrumental in the development of interlingua characterized it as standard average european 22 the romance germanic and slavic control languages of interlingua are reflective of the language groups most often included in the sae sprachbund the standard average european sprachbund is most likely the result of ongoing language contact in the time of the migration period 23 full citation needed and later continuing during the middle ages and the renaissance citation needed inheritance of the sae features from proto indo european can be ruled out because proto indo european as currently reconstructed lacked most of the sae features 24 full citation needed others edit sumerian and akkadian in the 3rd millennium bc 25 persian and arabic in west asia ethiopian language area which includes the ethio semitic omotic and most cushitic languages 9 26 27 bantu shimaore and malayo polynesian bushi on the comorian island of mayotte citation needed in the sepik river basin of new guinea 9 in the baltics northeast europe citation needed in the caucasus 3 though this is disputed 8 the iranic gilaki and mazandarani languages with south caucasian languages 28 several linguistic areas of the americas including mesoamerican linguistic area 29 pueblo linguistic area citation needed northwest coast linguistic area 9 austronesian and papuan languages spoken in eastern indonesia and east timor 30 31 east anatolia proposed though currently uncertain 32 modern himalayas region 33 proposed examples edit language families that have been proposed to actually be sprachbunds pama nyungan languages of australia 34 afro asiatic languages 35 proposed by g w tsereteli to be a sprachbund rather than a language family however the linguistic consensus is that afro asiatic is a valid language family see also edit look up sprachbund in wiktionary the free dictionary isogloss koiné language geolinguistics references edit mallinson graham blake barry j 1981 language typology cross linguistic studies in syntax north holland pp 17 18 isbn 0 444 863117 de courtenay jan baudouin 1904 jazykoznanie linguistics in brokhaus f a efron i a eds enciklopedičeskij slovarʹ vol 31 1 2 3 chirikba viacheslav a 2008 the problem of the caucasian sprachbund in muysken pieter ed from linguistic areas to areal linguistics amsterdam philadelphia john benjamins pp 25 94 isbn 978 90 272 3100 0 trubetzkoy nikolai s 1923 vavilonskaja bašnja i smešenie jazykov the tower of babel and the confusion of languages evrazijskij vremennik 3 107 124 trubetzkoy nikolai s 1930 proposition 16 über den sprachbund actes du premier congrès international des linguistes à la haye du 10 15 avril 1928 leiden a w sijthoff pp 17 18 jakobson roman 1931 über die phonologischen sprachbünde travaux du cercle linguistique de prague 4 234 240 reprinted in r jakobson selected writings vol 1 phonological studies the hague mouton de gruyter 1971 pp 137 148 jakobson roman 1938 sur la théorie des affinités phonologiques entre les langues actes du quatrième congrès international de linguistes tenu à copenhague du 27 aout au 1er septembre 1936 new york kraus reprints pp 351 365 1 2 tuite kevin 1999 the myth of the caucasian sprachbund the case of ergativity pdf lingua 108 1 1 29 doi 10 1016 s0024 3841 98 00037 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 thomason sarah 2000 linguistic areas and language history pdf in gilbers dicky nerbonne john schaeken jos eds languages in contact amsterdam rodopi pp 311 327 isbn 978 90 420 1322 3 campbell lyle 2002 areal linguistics a closer scrutiny 5th nwcl international conference linguistic areas convergence and language change archived from the original on 2012 03 13 retrieved 2010 09 25 campbell lyle terrence kaufman and thomas c smith stark meso america as a linguistic area language 1986 530 570 jernej k kopitar albanische walachische und bulgarische sprache wiener jahrbücher der literatur 46 1830 59 106 friedman victor a 1997 one grammar three lexicons ideological overtones and underpinnings in the balkan sprachbund papers from the 33rd regional meeting of the chicago linguistic society pdf chicago linguistic society 1 2 friedman victor a 2000 after 170 years of balkan linguistics whither the millennium pdf mediterranean language review 12 1 15 1 2 3 enfield n j 2005 areal linguistics and mainland southeast asia pdf annual review of anthropology 34 1 181 206 doi 10 1146 annurev anthro 34 081804 120406 hdl 11858 00 001m 0000 0013 167b c emeneau murray 1956 india as a linguistic area language 32 1 3 16 doi 10 2307 410649 jstor 410649 emeneau murray dil anwar 1980 language and linguistic area essays by murray b emeneau palo alto stanford university press isbn 978 0 8047 1047 3 thomason sarah grey 2001 language contact edinburgh university press pp 114 117 isbn 978 0 7486 0719 8 robbeets martine irma 2017 transeurasian linguistics critical concepts in linguistics london new york routledge taylor francis group isbn 978 0 415 82560 3 schönig claus 2003 turko mongolic relations in janhunen juha ed the mongolic languages london routledge pp 403 419 isbn 978 0 7007 1133 8 the relation of habitual thought and behavior to language in leslie spier a irving hallowell stanley s newman eds 1941 language culture and personality essays in memory of edward sapir menasha wisconsin sapir memorial publication fund pp 75 93 reprinted in john b carroll eds 1956 language thought and reality selected writings of benjamins lee whorf cambridge mass the m i t press pp 134 159 the work began to assume the character of a comparison between hopi and western european languages it also became evident that even the grammar of hopi bore a relation to hopi culture and the grammar of european tongues to our own western or european culture and it appeared that the interrelation brought in those large subsummations of experience by language such as our own terms time space substance and matter since with respect to the traits compared there is little difference between english french german or other european languages with the possible but doubtful exception of balto slavic and non indo european i have lumped these languages into one group called sae or standard average european whorf 1941 77 78 and 1956 138 gode alexander manifesto de interlingua pdf in interlingua retrieved february 10 2013 language typology and language universals accessed 2015 10 13 haspelmath martin 1998 how young is standard average european language sciences deutscher guy 2007 syntactic change in akkadian the evolution of sentential complementation oxford university press us pp 20 21 isbn 978 0 19 953222 3 ferguson charles 1970 the ethiopian language area the journal of ethiopian studies 8 2 67 80 ferguson charles 1976 the ethiopian language area pdf in bender m l bowen j d cooper r l ferguson c a eds language in ethiopia oxford university press pp 63 76 isbn 978 0 19 436102 6 nasidze ivan quinque dominique rahmani manijeh alemohamad seyed ali stoneking mark 20...
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