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almost certainly contain errors stored program architecture main articles computer program and computer programming replica of the manchester baby the world s first electronic stored program computer at the museum of science and industry in manchester england this section applies to most common ram machine based computers in most cases computer instructions are simple add one number to another move some data from one location to another send a message to some external device etc these instructions are read from the computer s memory and are generally carried out executed in the order they were given however there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there these are called jump instructions or branches furthermore jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that remembers the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction program execution might be likened to reading a book while a person will normally read each word and line in sequence they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest similarly a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met this is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention comparatively a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses but to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1 000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time with a near certainty of making a mistake on the other hand a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions the following example is written in the mips assembly language begin addi 8 0 0 initialize sum to 0 addi 9 0 1 set first number to add 1 loop slti 10 9 1000 check if the number is less than 1000 beq 10 0 finish if odd number is greater than n then exit add 8 8 9 update sum addi 9 9 1 get next number j loop repeat the summing process finish add 2 8 0 put sum in output register once told to run this program the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention it will almost never make a mistake and a modern pc can complete the task in a fraction of a second machine code in most computers individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number its operation code or opcode for short the command to add two numbers together would have one opcode the command to multiply them would have a different opcode and so on the simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from each with a unique numerical code since the computer s memory is able to store numbers it can also store the instruction codes this leads to the important fact that entire programs which are just lists of these instructions can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data the fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer s memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von neumann or stored program architecture 99 100 in some cases a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on this is called the harvard architecture after the harvard mark i computer modern von neumann computers display some traits of the harvard architecture in their designs such as in cpu caches while it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers machine language and while this technique was used with many early computers h it is extremely tedious and potentially error prone to do so in practice especially for complicated programs instead each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember a mnemonic such as add sub mult or jump these mnemonics are collectively known as a computer s assembly language converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand machine language is usually done by a computer program called an assembler a 1970s punched card containing one line from a fortran program the card reads z 1 y w 1 and is labeled proj039 for identification purposes programming language main article programming language programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run unlike natural languages programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise they are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud they are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run or translated directly at run time by an interpreter sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques low level languages main article low level programming language machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them collectively termed low level programming languages are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer s central processing unit cpu for instance an arm architecture cpu such as may be found in a smartphone or a hand held videogame cannot understand the machine language of an x86 cpu that might be in a pc i historically a significant number of other cpu architectures were created and saw extensive use notably including the mos technology 6502 and 6510 in addition to the zilog z80 high level languages main article high level programming language although considerably easier than in machine language writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone therefore most practical programs are written in more abstract high level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently and thereby help reduce programmer error high level languages are usually compiled into machine language or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language using another computer program called a compiler j high level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language and more related to the language and structure of the problem s to be solved by the final program it is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer this is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles program design this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed july 2012 learn how and when to remove this template message program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem collection of inputs using the programming constructs within languages devising or using established procedures and algorithms providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable as problems become larger and more complex features such as subprograms modules formal documentation and new paradigms such as object oriented programming are encountered large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies the task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge bugs main article software bug the actual first computer bug a moth found trapped on a relay of the harvard mark ii computer errors in computer programs are called bugs they may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program or have only subtle effects but in some cases they may cause the program or the entire system to hang becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes to completely fail or to crash 101 otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an exploit code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer s proper execution bugs are usually not the fault of the computer since computers merely execute the instructions they are given bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program s design k admiral grace hopper an american computer scientist and developer of the first compiler is credited for having first used the term bugs in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the harvard mark ii computer in september 1947 102 networking and the internet main articles computer networking and internet visualization of a portion of the routes on the internet computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s the u s military s sage system was the first large scale example of such a system which led to a number of special purpose commercial systems such as sabre 103 in the 1970s computer engineers at research institutions throughout the united states began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology the effort was funded by arpa now darpa and the computer network that resulted was called the arpanet 104 the technologies that made the arpanet possible spread and evolved in time the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the internet the emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network such as peripheral devices stored information and the like as extensions of the resources of an individual computer initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high tech environments but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e mail and the world wide web combined with the development of cheap fast networking technologies like ethernet and adsl saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous in fact the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally a very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the internet to communicate and receive information wireless networking often utilizing mobile phone networks has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments unconventional computers main article human computer see also harvard computers a computer does not need to be electronic nor even have a processor nor ram nor even a hard disk while popular usage of the word computer is synonymous with a personal electronic computer l the modern definition of a computer is literally a device that computes especially a programmable usually electronic machine that performs high speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles stores correlates or otherwise processes information 105 any device which processes information qualifies as a computer especially if the processing is purposeful citation needed future there is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology such as optical computers dna computers neural computers and quantum computers most computers are universal and are able to calculate any computable function and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed however different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring very quickly computer architecture paradigms there are many types of computer architectures quantum computer vs chemical computer scalar processor vs vector processor non uniform memory access numa computers register machine vs stack machine harvard architecture vs von neumann architecture cellular architecture of all these abstract machines a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing 106 logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms the ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile distinguishing them from calculators the church turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility any computer with a minimum capability being turing complete is in principle capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform therefore any type of computer netbook supercomputer cellular automaton etc is able to perform the same computational tasks given enough time and storage capacity artificial intelligence a computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to without regard to efficiency alternative solutions possible shortcuts or possible errors in the code computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories rule based systems and pattern recognition systems rule based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop pattern based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions examples of pattern based systems include voice recognition font recognition translation and the emerging field of on line marketing professions and organizations as the use of computers has spread throughout society there are an increasing number of careers involving computers computer related professions hardware related electrical engineering electronic engineering computer engineering telecommunications engineering optical engineering nanoengineering software related computer science computer engineering desktop publishing human computer interaction information technology information systems computational science software engineering video game industry web design the need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature organizations standards groups ansi iec ieee ietf iso w3...
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