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to exert moral suasion and extract a measure of compliance from their members that is communities are necessarily indeed by definition coercive as well as moral threatening their members with the stick of sanctions if they stray offering them the carrot of certainty and stability if they don t 12 what is specifically meant by community in the context of communitarianism can vary greatly between authors and periods historically communities have been small and localized however as the reach of economic and technological forces extended more expansive communities became necessary to provide effective normative and political guidance to these forces prompting the rise of national communities in europe in the 17th century since the late 20th century there has been some growing recognition that the scope of even these communities is too limited as many challenges that people now face such as the threat of nuclear war and that of global environmental degradation and economic crises cannot be handled on a national basis this has led to the quest for more encompassing communities such as the european union whether truly supra national communities can be developed is far from clear more modern communities can take many different forms but are often limited in scope and reach for example members of one residential community are often also members of other communities such as work ethnic or religious ones as a result modern community members have multiple sources of attachments and if one threatens to become overwhelming individuals will often pull back and turn to another community for their attachments thus communitarianism is the reaction of some intellectuals to the problems of western society an attempt to find flexible forms of balance between the individual and society the autonomy of the individual and the interests of the community between the common good and freedom rights and duties 13 14 academic communitarianism edit whereas the classical liberalism of the enlightenment can be viewed as a reaction to centuries of authoritarianism oppressive government overbearing communities and rigid dogma modern communitarianism can be considered a reaction to excessive individualism understood as an undue emphasis on individual rights leading people to become selfish or egocentric 15 the close relation between the individual and the community was discussed on a theoretical level by michael sandel and charles taylor among other academic communitarians in their criticisms of philosophical liberalism especially the work of the american liberal theorist john rawls and that of the german enlightenment philosopher immanuel kant they argued that contemporary liberalism failed to account for the complex set of social relations that all individuals in the modern world are a part of liberalism is rooted in an untenable ontology that posits the existence of generic individuals and fails to account for social embeddedness to the contrary they argued there are no generic individuals but rather only germans or russians berliners or muscovites or members of some other particularistic community because individual identity is partly constructed by culture and social relations there is no coherent way of formulating individual rights or interests in abstraction from social contexts thus according to these communitarians there is no point in attempting to found a theory of justice on principles decided behind rawls veil of ignorance because individuals cannot exist in such an abstracted state even in principle 15 academic communitarians also contend that the nature of the political community is misunderstood by liberalism where liberal philosophers described the polity as a neutral framework of rules within which a multiplicity of commitments to moral values can coexist academic communitarians argue that such a thin conception of political community was both empirically misleading and normatively dangerous good societies these authors believe rest on much more than neutral rules and procedures they rely on a shared moral culture some academic communitarians argued even more strongly on behalf of such particularistic values suggesting that these were the only kind of values which matter and that it is a philosophical error to posit any truly universal moral values in addition to charles taylor and michael sandel other thinkers sometimes associated with academic communitarianism include michael walzer alasdair macintyre seyla benhabib shlomo avineri and patrick j deneen 15 social capital edit beginning in the late 20th century many authors began to observe a deterioration in the social networks of the united states in the book bowling alone robert putnam observed that nearly every form of civic organization has undergone drops in membership exemplified by the fact that while more people are bowling than in the 1950s there are fewer bowling leagues this results in a decline in social capital described by putnam as the collective value of all social networks and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other according to putnam and his followers social capital is a key component to building and maintaining democracy 10 communitarians seek to bolster social capital and the institutions of civil society the responsive communitarian platform described it thus 16 many social goals require partnerships between public and private groups though the government should not seek to replace local communities it may need to empower them by strategies of support including revenue sharing and technical assistance there is a great need for study and experimentation with creative use of the structures of civil society and public private cooperation especially where the delivery of health educational and social services are concerned positive rights edit important to some supporters of communitarian philosophy is the concept of positive rights which are rights or guarantees to certain things these may include state subsidized education state subsidized housing a safe and clean environment universal health care and even the right to a job with the concomitant obligation of the government or individuals to provide one to this end communitarians generally support social security programs public works programs and laws limiting such things as pollution a common objection is that by providing such rights communitarians violate the negative rights of the citizens rights to not have something done for you for example taxation to pay for such programs as described above dispossesses individuals of property proponents of positive rights by attributing the protection of negative rights to the society rather than the government respond that individuals would not have any rights in the absence of societies a central tenet of communitarianism and thus have a responsibility to give something back to it some have viewed this as a negation of natural rights however what is or is not a natural right is a source of contention in modern politics as well as historically for example whether or not universal health care private property or protection from polluters can be considered a birthright alternatively some agree that negative rights may be violated by a government action but argue that it is justifiable if the positive rights protected outweigh the negative rights lost still other communitarians question the very idea of natural rights and their place in a properly functioning community they claim that instead claims of rights and entitlements create a society unable to form cultural institutions and grounded social norms based on shared values rather the liberalist claim to individual rights leads to a morality centered on individual emotivism as ethical issues can no longer be solved by working through common understandings of the good the worry here is that not only is society individualized but so are moral claims 17 responsive communitarianism movement edit in the early 1990s in response to the perceived breakdown in the moral fabric of society engendered by excessive individualism amitai etzioni and william a galston began to organize working meetings to think through communitarian approaches to key societal issues this ultimately took the communitarian philosophy from a small academic group introduced it into public life and recast its philosophical content deeming themselves responsive communitarians in order to distinguish the movement from authoritarian communitarians etzioni and galston along with a varied group of academics including mary ann glendon thomas a spragens james fishkin benjamin barber hans joas philip selznick and robert n bellah among others drafted and published the responsive communitarian platform 18 based on their shared political principles and the ideas in it were eventually elaborated in academic and popular books and periodicals gaining thereby a measure of political currency in the west etzioni later formed the communitarian network to study and promote communitarian approaches to social issues and began publishing a quarterly journal the responsive community the main thesis of responsive communitarianism is that people face two major sources of normativity that of the common good and that of autonomy and rights neither of which in principle should take precedence over the other this can be contrasted with other political and social philosophies which derive their core assumptions from one overarching principle such as liberty autonomy for libertarianism it further posits that a good society is based on a carefully crafted balance between liberty and social order between individual rights and personal responsibility and between pluralistic and socially established values responsive communitarianism stresses the importance of society and its institutions above and beyond that of the state and the market which are often the focus of other political philosophies it also emphasizes the key role played by socialization moral culture and informal social controls rather than state coercion or market pressures it provides an alternative to liberal individualism and a major counterpoint to authoritarian communitarianism by stressing that strong rights presume strong responsibilities and that one should not be neglected in the name of the other following standing sociological positions communitarians assume that the moral character of individuals tends to degrade over time unless that character is continually and communally reinforced they contend that a major function of the community as a building block of moral infrastructure is to reinforce the character of its members through the community s moral voice defined as the informal sanction of others built into a web of informal affect laden relationships which communities provide influence edit responsive communitarians have been playing a considerable public role presenting themselves as the founders of a different kind of environmental movement one dedicated to shoring up society as opposed to the state rather than nature like environmentalism communitarianism appeals to audiences across the political spectrum although it has found greater acceptance with some groups than others although communitarianism is a small philosophical school it has had considerable influence on public dialogues and politics there are strong similarities between communitarian thinking and the third way the political thinking of centrist democrats in the united states and the neue mitte in germany communitarianism played a key role in tony blair s remaking of the british socialist labour party into new labour and a smaller role in president bill clinton s campaigns other politicians have echoed key communitarian themes such as hillary clinton who has long held that to raise a child takes not just parents family friends and neighbors but a whole village 19 it has also been suggested 14 that the compassionate conservatism espoused by president bush during his 2000 presidential campaign was a form of conservative communitarian thinking although he did not implement it in his policy program cited policies have included economic and rhetorical support for education volunteerism and community programs as well as a social emphasis on promoting families character education traditional values and faith based projects president barack obama gave voice to communitarian ideas and ideals in his book the audacity of hope 20 and during the 2008 presidential election campaign he repeatedly called upon americans to ground our politics in the notion of a common good for an age of responsibility and for foregoing identity politics in favor of community wide unity building however for many in the west the term communitarian conjures up authoritarian and collectivist associations so many public leaders and even several academics considered champions of this school avoid the term while embracing and advancing its ideas reflecting the dominance of liberal and conservative politics in the united states no major party and few elected officials openly advocate communitarianism thus there is no consensus on individual policies but some that most communitarians endorse have been enacted nonetheless there is a small faction of communitarians within the democratic party prominent communitarians include bob casey jr joe donnelly and claire mccaskill many communitarian democrats are part of the blue dog coalition it is quite possible according to whom that the united states right libertarian ideological underpinnings have suppressed major communitarian factions from emerging 21 dana milbank writing in the washington post remarked of modern communitarians there is still no such thing as a card carrying communitarian and therefore no consensus on policies some such as john diiulio and outside bush adviser marvin olasky favor religious solutions for communities while others like etzioni and galston prefer secular approaches 22 in august 2011 the right libertarian reason magazine worked with the rupe organization to survey 1 200 americans by telephone the reason rupe poll found that americans cannot easily be bundled into either the liberal or conservative groups specifically 28 expressed conservative views 24 expressed libertarian views 20 expressed communitarian views and 28 expressed liberal views the margin of error was 3 23 a similar gallup survey in 2011 included possible centrist moderate responses that poll reported that 17 expressed conservative views 22 expressed libertarian views 20 expressed communitarian views 17 expressed centrist views and 24 expressed liberal views the organization used the terminology the bigger the better to describe communitarianism 23 the pakistan tehreek e insaf party founded and led by imran khan is considered the first political party in the world which has declared communitarianism as one of their official ideologies 24 comparison to other political philosophies edit a variant of the nolan ...
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