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the (129), ajami (60), and (50), arabic (44), #script (31), for (27), swahili (26), africa (24), written (20), with (18), languages (17), was (16), edit (15), this (14), from (14), hausa (13), ohchr (12), language (11), 2026 (10), writing (10), retrieved (10), orthography (10), universal (10), were (10), african (9), some (9), west (9), alphabet (9), which (9), page (8), comorian (8), scripts (8), kanuri (8), wikipedia (7), use (7), ipa (7), wolof (7), history (7), doi (7), declaration (7), human (7), rights (7), also (7), are (7), article (7), used (7), non (6), isbn (6), songhay (6), fula (6), between (6), centuries (6), table (5), different (5), journal (5), characters (5), that (5), susu (5), see (5), sample (5), only (5), muslim (5), dot (5), century (5), contents (4), search (4), view (4), contact (4), text (4), using (4), has (4), alphabets (4), other (4), links (4), islam (4), its (4), issn (4), colonial (4), pdf (4), 978 (4), standards (4), system (4), mandinka (4), diacritics 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Text of the page (random words):
mi comes from 13th century tomb inscriptions in modern day niger where arabic inscriptions often contained individual songhay words in titles or names like in the example below where the songhay word is highlighted 4 hāđā al qabr al wazīr muħammad ariyaw ẓammu kawkaw bin būbakar this is the tomb of muhammad ariyaw praise named kawkaw son of boubacar fatima kayna bint little fatima daughter of fa inna ma al asur yasuran a poem written in fulfulde ajami by nana asma u in 1822 nana asma u was a female princess poet and author from the sokoto caliphate modern day northern nigeria the older examples of ajami are all notes taken by scribes in the margins of books written primarily in arabic 1 later fulfulde hausa wolof and mandinke would use the script with full books and poetry written in ajami and vast literary traditions emerging 1 5 by the 17th century the script was being used to publish religious texts and poetry 5 fulani poetry from the futa jallon region in guinea was written in ajami from the middle of the 18th century 5 during the pre colonial period qur anic schools taught muslim children arabic and by extension ajami 3 after western colonization a latin orthography for hausa was adopted and the ajami script declined in popularity 5 some anti colonial groups and movements continued to use ajami 6 an islamic revival in the 19th century led to a wave of ajami written works 1 ajami remains in widespread use among islamic circles 5 but exists in digraphia among the broader populace ajami is used ceremonially and for specific purposes such as for local herbal preparations in the jula language 7 in some areas of ghana ajami is still seen in newspapers advertisements and daily life 8 east africa edit see also swahili ajami in the 8th or 9th centuries around the same time as west africa the coasts of kenya tanzania and mozambique started to gain muslim settlements which brought arabic writing into east africa 9 while these city states had been muslim for centuries it was only in the early 17th century that swahili ajami was first written hamziya is the oldest book written entirely in swahili the comoro islands also became muslim at around the same time and had extensive contact with swahili traders hence swahili ajami and its orthography migrated to the comorian ajami for centuries swahili was written with no modification from the original arabic alphabet and was indistinguishable from arabic in appearance 10 after contact and later colonisation the latin alphabet greatly diminished the use of swahili ajami and the other east african languages with adopted swahili conventions 9 however in the 19th 20th and 21st centuries there were movements for the swahilization of the script and standards were adopted while the swahili dialects in lamu and zanzibar were the basis of swahili heritage for centuries scholars in mombasa and even in barawa were the first to suggest reforms such as mwalimu sikujua resulting in many competing standards between cities 9 10 the ajami for the comorian dialects however followed a completely different path from swahili and the rest of africa in 1960 the standardisation of comorian ajami was undertaken by said kamar eddine who had a different philosophy when it came to the writing system he paid attention to the trends that were happening in central asia specifically the irani and iraqi kurdistan movement where they ditched the abjad system and decided to represent vowels as characters creating a full alphabet hence while swahili added diacritics to represent a wider array of vowels diacritics were ditched entirely in comoros 11 today the most accepted form of swahili ajami is by mu allim sheikh yahya ali omar based on mombasa since it has historically been a crossgrounds for all dialects of swahili 9 orthography edit the second section showcases the senegalese orthography of an ajami diacritic showing which characters should be read in their wolof pulaar equivalent sound while ajami refers to a widespread diverse practice there are many universal similarities in west africa this is not the case in ajami written for comorian and swahili scripts this is mainly because of islam in west africa coming from the north african maliki school which authored texts in the maghrebi script some universal features of ajami include the following 4 qāf ق is written with only one dot instead of two ڧ fā ف is written with the dot placed below ڢ nūn ن is often written without the dot word in its final form ں shaddah ـّ the gemination marker is written as a v sign instead of a w sign ᵛ tashkil writing out the vowel diacritics is done in all contexts as for some common yet not universal similarities some ajami conventions like the ones written for kanuri 12 soninke 13 and susu 14 adopted the warsh orthography for imala imala is the fronting of the aː toward iː which in many qur anic recitations tends to approximate an e 12 the warsh orthography marks this for certain words using an alif with a filled dot below approximately ا̩ which was appropriated to a subscript dot diacritic for the vowel in kanuri and susu it was also important in some contexts to distinguish characters that were used in an arabic or ajami context in wolof and pulaar ajami in the senegalese guinean area for example it was standard to write three dots in a noticeably smaller configuration to signify that the letter should be read in its non arabic equivalent 4 table edit a summary of the different alphabets of ajami in some languages can be found below however with several of the intricacies omitted for example many characters are used only for loanwords in some ajami scripts which have been removed from the table ipa script unicode arabic fula hausa kanuri 12 mandinka 14 soninke 13 songhay susu 14 wolof 15 ʔ أ أ أ أ أ أ أ أ أ b ب ب ب ب ب ب ب ب ب ب ɓ ݒ ٻ ݑ ٻ p پ پ ڤ پ ٻ پ پ پ پ t ت ت ت ت ت ت ت ت ت ت c ݖ ش ٽ ذ ش ݖ s ٽ ٽ ٽ ٽ ٽ θ ث ث ج ɟ ج ج ج ج ج ج ج d͡ʒ ج ɟ ڃ ۑ ڃ ڃ ڃ h ح ح ح ح x خ خ خ خ خ خ d د د ط د د د د د د د d̠ ذ ذ r ر ر ر ر ر ر ر ر ر ر z ز ز ز ز ز s س س س س س س س س س س ʃ ش ش ش ش ش s ص ص d ض ض t ط ط ط ɗ ط ط z ظ ظ tʃ ڟ ش ڟ ت ݘ ʕ ع ع ع ع ɡ غ غ غ غ غ ف ŋ ݝ ݝ ٌ ً ݝ ݝ ݝ ݝ ᵑɡ ن غ نغ ɡʷ ڠ ڠ ɸ ف ف ف ف ف ف ف ف ف ف β ݡ v ڤ q ق ق ق ق ƙʷ ڨ ڨ k ک ک ک ک ک ک ک ک ک ɡ گ گ گ ڭ گ ƙ ݤ ق kʷ ݣ ݣ l ل ل ل ل ل ل ل ل ل ل m م م م م م م م م م م n ن ن ن ن ن ن ن ن عُا ن ɲ ݧ ݧ ۑ ݧ ي ݧ h ه ه ه ه ه ه ه ه ه w و و و و و و و و و و j ي ي ي ي ي ذ ج ي ي vowels a َ َ َ َ َ َ َ َ َ à ࣵ ࣵ ə ࣴ ْ ࣴ ɛ ࣹ ̣ ࣹ e ࣺ ىٰ ٜ ىٰ ی ا̩ ِ ̣ ̣ ࣺ u ُ ُ ُ ُ ُ ُ ُ َ ُ i ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ي ِ ِ o ٝ ٝ ُ واْ ُ ُ ࣷ ُ ࣸ ɔ ُ ipa script unicode arabic swahili 9 comorian 11 ʔ أ أ أ ا b ب ب ب ب ɓ ب ب ᵐb نْ ب نْب p پ پ پ پ pʰ پْ ھ پْھ t ت ت ٹ ت t̪ ت ت تّ tʰ ٹ ھ ٹھ θ ث ث ث ث ɟ ج ج ج d͡ʒ ج ج ⁿd̥ʒ̊ نْ ج نْج tʃ چ چ شّ tʃʰ چ ھ چھ h ح ح ح ح x خ خ خ d د د نْڈ ڈ د ⁿd̪ نْ د نْد d̠ ذ ذ ذ ð ذ ذ ض ذ r ر ر ر ر z ز ز ز ز d͡z زّ زّ ʒ ژ ژ s س س س س t͡s سّ سّ ʃ ش ش ش ش s ص ص d ض ض t ط ط z ظ ظ ʕ ع ع ع ئ ɡ غ غ غ ɣ غ غ غ ɡ ڠ ڠ ŋ ن ݝ نݝ ᵑɡ نْ ڠ نْڠ ɸ ف ف f ف ف ف β ڢ ڢ v ڤ ڤ ڤ q ق ق ق k ک ک ک ک kʰ ك ھ كھ l ل ل ل ل m م م م م n ن ن ن ن ɲ نّ نّ h ه ه ه w و و و و j ي ي ي ی ɲ نْ ي نْي vowels a َ َ ا e ٖ ہ u ُ ُ ُ و i ِ ِ ِ ی o ٗ ه text sample edit variants of ajami alphabet with article 1 of the universal declaration of human rights language ajami latin notes swahili وَاتُ وٗوتٖ وَمٖزَلِيوَ حُورُ هَاذِ نَ حَقِ زَاءٗ نِ سَاوَ وٗوتٖ وَمٖجَلِيوَ عَقِيلِ نَ ضَمِيرِ هِيڤْيٗ يَپَاسَ وَتٖنْدٖئَانٖ كِنْدُوڠُ watu wote wamezaliwa huru hadhi na haki zao ni sawa wote wamejaliwa akili na dhamiri hivyo yapasa watendeane kindugu 16 hausa سُو دَیْ ؿَنْ أَدَمْ أَنَ حَيْڢُوَرْسُ نٜىٰ دُکَ ؿَنْتَتُّ کُمَ کُووَنٜىٰسُ نَا دَ مُتُنْثِ دَ حَکُوْکِی دَیْدَیْ دَ نَا کُوْوَا سُنَ دَ هَنْکَلِی دَ تُنَانِ سَبُوْدَ حَکَا دُکْ أَبِنْ دَ زَا سُو أَیْکَتَ وَ جُونَ یَا کَمَاتَ سُیِ شِ أَ ثِکِنْ ؿَنْ أُوَانْثِ su dai yan adam ana haifuwarsu ne duka yantattu kuma kowannensu na da mutunci da hakkoki daidai da na kowa 17 hausa writing can be split between the hafs convention most popular across the muslim world and the warsh convention which is common across africa this sample displays the latter it has never been recognised or standardised officially in any state invented consonants are palatised labilised phonemes and the implosive b 2 fula عِنَمَ عَا د ٜيذِ ف ࣾف ݑ ࣾتِ ندِمطِدِ ع ٜ ذِبِنَند ٜ ت ࣾ بَنىْ ٜ هَك ٜيذِ ع ٜݑ ٜ ىْ ࣾودِ مِيذ ࣾ ع ٜ هَكِلَنتَاعَل ع ٜت ٜ ع ٜݑ ٜ ݑ ࣾتِ هُوف ࣾ ندِرد ٜ ع ٜ ند ٜر ݑ عِيىُْيُمَاغُ innama aadeeji fof poti ndimɗidi e jibinannde to bannge hakkeeji eɓe ngoodi miijo e hakkilantaagal ete eɓe poti huufo ndirde e nder ɓ iynguyummaagu 18 there are several different dialects and writing standards of fulani but the two most prolific ajami cultures were the sokoto caliphate which also standardised hausa ajami and the imamate of fouta djallon this sample represents the latter which added a variety of new symbols mandinka اَدَمَد ِنِنُ ب ٜي سُند ࣾنَ كَكَن هُرُيَ دُ فَبَدٍنَ دُ اَنِ سَرِيَ تَ فَن دُ هَنكِلِ نِ سُنُم ٜ يِ اَلُ ب ٜي مَ اَ كَكَن وُ دُ اَلُ يِ بَكِلٍنَ سِلَ لَتَامَن اَلُ ۑُون ت ٜ adamadennu bɛɛ sɔdɔnɲa kakan hɔrɔya dɔ fabadenɲa dɔ ani sariya ta fan dɔ hankili ni sɔnɔmɛ ye alu bɛɛ ma a kakan wo dɔ alu ye bakelenɲa sila lataaman alu ɲɔɔn tɛ 19 kanuri اَدَمغَنَ وُوسُو كَمبىٰ كَتَمبُو يىٰ دَرَيَعَ هَكِوَعَسُون كَلكَليىٰ هَنكَلعَ نَزَرُعَسُورُو كْزْپكْ يىٰ سُرُو هَل نْمهَرَميبىٰن كَمَزَسُوغَ لىٰتَييِن يىٰ adamgana woso kambe katambo ye daraja a hakkiwa ason kalkalye hankal a nazaru asoro kəzəpkə ye suro hal nəmharamiben kamazasoga letaiyin ye 20 comorian وه وانادامو پييا وه وزالوا نا وحورييا نا وساوا واكي وندرو نا وحاكي وو وپواوا انكيلي نا ورامبوزي حاييزو ييلازيمو واروالييان ہ حازيتر ہ ندوا نا فيكيرا زاكي ونانيا wo wanadamu piya wo uzalwa na uhuriya na usawa waki undru na uhaki wo upwawa ankili na urambuzi hayizo yilazimu warwaliyane hazitrendwa na fikira zaki unanya 21 this sample uses the standardised comorian ajami with the shingazija language the only one translated into the udhr it is the only ajami script to use no diacritics in standard usage leaving no room for it 11 see also edit wolofal script wadaad s writing fula alphabets arabic ajami alphabet swahili ajami mandinka language orthography maore dialect maore arabic alphabet susu language orthography aljamiado jawi script perso arabic script timbuktu manuscripts arwi references edit 1 2 3 4 5 6 ngom fallou 2016 08 01 muslims beyond the arab world oxford university press pp 8 9 doi 10 1093 acprof oso 9780190279868 001 0001 isbn 978 0 19 027986 8 1 2 a lesson on language literacy and islam in africa teach your students to become experts in ajami why that matters pdf www bu edu july 2023 retrieved 24 june 2026 1 2 ngom fallou 2018 02 15 albaugh ericka a de luna kathryn m eds ajami literacies of west africa oxford scholarship online 1 doi 10 1093 oso 9780190657543 001 0001 isbn 978 0 19 065754 3 cite journal cs1 maint periodical has isbn link 1 2 3 souag lameen ajami in west africa pdf scispace com retrieved 2025 09 06 1 2 3 4 5 pasch helma january 2008 competing scripts the introduction of the roman alphabet in africa international journal of the sociology of language 191 2 9 10 doi 10 1515 ijsl 2008 025 issn 0165 2516 s2cid 144394668 callahan molly 21 december 2022 unearthing a long ignored african writing system one researcher finds african history by africans boston university retrieved 2023 01 21 donaldson coleman 1 october 2013 jula ajami in burkina faso a grassroots literacy in the former kong empire working papers in educational linguistics 28 2 19 36 issn 1548 3134 hunwick john o ed 2003 arabic literature of africa 4 the writings of western sudanic africa comp by john o hunwick der nahe und der mittlere osten leiden brill isbn 978 90 04 12444 8 1 2 3 4 5 omar yahya ali frankl p j l april 1997 an historical review of the arabic rendering of swahili together with proposals for the development of a swahili writing system in arabic script based on the swahili of mombasa journal of the royal asiatic society 7 1 55 71 doi 10 1017 s1356186300008312 issn 1356 1863 1 2 chapane mutiua 2020 10 05 swahili ajami an introduction a label african languages between the lines doi 10 58079 awub 1 2 3 fanon michel 2007 le système kamar eddine une tentative originale d écriture du comorien en graphie arabe 1 2 3 creating standards interactions with arabic script in 12 manuscript cultures de gruyter 2019 04 15 doi 10 1515 9783110639063 isbn 978 3 11 063906 3 1 2 sooninkanxannen sigiru 1 2 3 vydrin valentin ajami scripts for mande languages a priest loran hosken martin 12 august 2010 proposal to add arabic script characters for african and asian languages pdf ohchr universal declaration of human rights swahili kiswahili ohchr retrieved 2026 09 12 ohchr universal declaration of human rights hausa ohchr retrieved 2026 09 12 ohchr universal declaration of human rights peuhl ohchr retrieved 2026 09 12 ohchr universal declaration of human rights maninka ohchr retrieved 2026 09 12 ohchr universal declaration of human rights kanuri yerwa ohchr retrieved 2026 09 12 ohchr universal declaration of human rights shingazidja ohchr retrieved 2026 09 12 further reading edit bonate liazzat jk the use of the arabic script in northern mozambique tydskrif vir letterkunde 45 no 1 2008 133 142 dobronravine nikolai and john e philips hausa ajami literature and script colonial innovations and post colonial myths in northern nigeria sudanic africa 15 2004 85 110 hegyi o 1979 minority and restricted uses of the arabic alphabet the aljamiado phenomenon journal of the american oriental society 99 2 262 269 doi 10 2307 602662 issn 0003 0279 jstor 602662 s2cid 163610376 lüpke friederike language planning in west africa who writes the script language documentation and description 2 2004 90 107 mumin meikal the arabic script in africa understudied literacy in the arabic script in africa pp 41 76 brill 2014 naim mohammed c arabic orthography and some non semitic languages islam and its cultural divergence ed girdhari l tikku university of illinois press chicago 1971 ngom fallou ajami scripts in the senegalese speech community journal of arabic and islamic studies 10 2010 1 23 robinson david fulfulde literature in arabic script history in africa 9 1982 251 261 external links edit notes on sub saharan languages written in arabic script a label african languages between the lines a research blog associated with the ajami lab at the centre for the study of manuscript cultures at the universität hamburg panafrican l10n page on arabic script and ajami omniglot page on hausa ajami script v t e arabic alphabets indicates the language is no longer written using arabic europe albanian avar azerbaijani belarusian chechen circassian adyghe kabardian crimean tatar dargwa greek ingush karachay balkar kazakh kumyk lak lezgin old spanish ottoman turkish serbo croatian asia aer arabic azerbaijani balochi balti bashkir bengali brahui buri wolio burushaski chagatay cham jawi gawri gujrati jawi jawoe kashmiri kazakh kishtwari khowar kurdish kyrgyz malayalam ...
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