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eople did not support such actions 73 general opposition and military conspiracy between 1934 and 1938 opponents of the nazi regime and their fellow travellers began to emerge among the first to speak out were religious dissenters but following in their wake were educators aristocratic businessmen office workers teachers and others from nearly every walk of life 74 most people quickly learned that open opposition was dangerous since gestapo informants and agents were widespread however a significant number of them still worked against the national socialist government 75 in may 1935 the gestapo broke up and arrested members of the markwitz circle a group of former socialists in contact with otto strasser who sought hitler s downfall 76 from the mid 1930s into the early 1940s various groups made up of communists idealists working class people and far right conservative opposition organisations covertly fought against hitler s government and several of them fomented plots that included hitler s assassination nearly all of them including the römer group robby group solf circle schwarze reichswehr the party of the radical middle class jungdeutscher orden schwarze front and stahlhelm were either discovered or infiltrated by the gestapo this led to corresponding arrests being sent to concentration camps and execution 77 one of the methods employed by the gestapo to contend with these resistance factions was protective detention which facilitated the process in expediting dissenters to concentration camps and against which there was no legal defence 78 photograph from 1939 shown from left to right are franz josef huber arthur nebe heinrich himmler reinhard heydrich and heinrich müller planning the investigation of the bomb assassination attempt on adolf hitler on 8 november 1939 in munich early efforts to resist the nazis with aid from abroad were hindered when the opposition s peace feelers to the western allies did not meet with success this was partly because of the venlo incident of 9 november 1939 79 in which sd and gestapo agents posing as anti nazis in the netherlands kidnapped two british secret intelligence service sis officers after having lured them to a meeting to discuss peace terms this prompted winston churchill to ban any further contact with the german opposition 80 later the british and americans did not want to deal with anti nazis because they were fearful that the soviet union would believe they were attempting to make deals behind their back d the german opposition was in an unenviable position by the late spring and early summer of 1943 on one hand it was next to impossible for them to overthrow hitler and the party on the other the allied demand for an unconditional surrender meant no opportunity for a compromise peace which left the military and conservative aristocrats who opposed the regime no option in their eyes other than continuing the military struggle 82 despite the fear of the gestapo after mass arrests and executions in the spring the opposition still plotted and planned one of the more famous schemes operation valkyrie involved a number of senior german officers and was carried out by colonel claus schenk graf von stauffenberg in an attempt to assassinate hitler stauffenberg planted a bomb underneath a conference table inside the wolf s lair field headquarters 83 known as the 20 july plot this assassination attempt failed and hitler was only slightly injured reports indicate that the gestapo was caught unaware of this plot as they did not have sufficient protections in place at the appropriate locations nor did they take any preventative steps 84 85 stauffenberg and his group were shot on 21 july 1944 meanwhile his fellow conspirators were rounded up by the gestapo and sent to a concentration camp thereafter there was a show trial overseen by roland freisler followed by their execution 86 some germans were convinced that it was their duty to apply all possible expedients to end the war as quickly as possible sabotage efforts were undertaken by members of the abwehr military intelligence leadership as they recruited people known to oppose the nazi regime 87 the gestapo cracked down ruthlessly on dissidents in germany just as they did everywhere else opposition became more difficult arrests torture and executions were common terror against state enemies had become a way of life to such a degree that the gestapo s presence and methods were eventually normalised in the minds of people living in nazi germany 88 organisation interior of the gestapo headquarters in january 1933 hermann göring hitler s minister without portfolio was appointed the head of the prussian police and began filling the political and intelligence units of the prussian secret police with nazi party members 89 a year after the organisation s inception göring wrote in a british publication about having created the organisation on his own initiative and how he was chiefly responsible for the elimination of the marxist and communist threat to germany and prussia 90 describing the activities of the organisation göring boasted about the utter ruthlessness required for germany s recovery the establishment of concentration camps for that purpose and even went on to claim that excesses were committed in the beginning recounting how beatings took place here and there 91 on 26 april 1933 he reorganised the force s amt iii as the gestapa better known by the sobriquet gestapo 92 a secret state police intended to serve the nazi cause 93 less than two weeks later in early may 1933 the gestapo moved into their berlin headquarters at prinz albrecht straße 8 94 as a result of its 1936 merger with the kripo national criminal police to form sub units of the sicherheitspolizei sipo security police the gestapo was officially classified as a government agency himmler s subsequent appointment to chef der deutschen polizei chief of german police and status as reichsführer ss made him independent of interior minister wilhelm frick s nominal control 26 27 the sipo was placed under the direct command of reinhard heydrich who was already chief of the nazi party s intelligence service the sicherheitsdienst sd 26 the idea was to fully identify and integrate the party agency sd with the state agency sipo most sipo members joined the ss and held a rank in both organisations nevertheless in practice there was jurisdictional overlap and operational conflict between the sd and gestapo 95 heinrich müller chief of the gestapo 1939 1945 in september 1939 the sipo and sd were merged into the newly created reichssicherheitshauptamt rsha reich security main office both the gestapo and kripo became distinct departments within the rsha 33 although the sicherheitspolizei was officially disbanded the term sipo was figuratively used to describe any rsha personnel throughout the remainder of the war in lieu of naming convention changes the original construct of the sipo gestapo and kripo cannot be fully comprehended as discrete entities since they ultimately formed a conglomerate in which each was wedded to each other and the ss through its security service the sd 96 the creation of the rsha represented the formalisation at the top level of the relationship under which the sd served as the intelligence agency for the security police a similar co ordination existed in the local offices within germany and areas which were incorporated within the reich for the purpose of civil administration local offices of the gestapo criminal police and sd were formally separate they were subject to co ordination by inspectors of the security police and sd on the staffs of the local higher ss and police leaders however and one of the principal functions of the local sd units was to serve as the intelligence agency for the local gestapo units in the occupied territories the formal relationship between local units of the gestapo criminal police and sd was slightly closer 97 the gestapo became known as rsha amt iv department or office iv with heinrich müller as its chief 34 in january 1943 himmler appointed ernst kaltenbrunner rsha chief almost seven months after heydrich had been assassinated 35 the specific internal departments of amt iv were as follows 98 department a political opponents communists a1 counter sabotage a2 reactionaries liberals and opposition a3 protective services a4 department b sects and churches catholicism b1 protestantism b2 freemasons and other churches b3 jewish affairs b4 department c administration and party affairs central administrative office of the gestapo responsible for card files of all personnel including all officials files card indexes information and administration c1 protective custody c2 press office c3 nsdap matters c4 department d occupied territories administration for regions outside the reich protectorate affairs protectorate of bohemia and moravia regions of yugoslavia greece d1 1st belgrade special combat detachment general government d2 confidential office hostile foreigners emigrants d3 occupied territories france belgium holland norway denmark d4 occupied eastern territories d5 department e security and counterintelligence in the reich e1 policy and economic formation e2 west e3 scandinavia north e4 east e5 south e6 in 1941 referat n the central command office of the gestapo was formed however these internal departments remained and the gestapo continued to be a department under the rsha umbrella the local offices of the gestapo known as gestapo leitstellen and stellen answered to a local commander known as the inspekteur der sicherheitspolizei und des sd inspector of the security police and security service who in turn was under the dual command of referat n of the gestapo and also his local ss and police leader 99 100 in total there were some fifty four regional gestapo offices across the german federal states 101 the gestapo also maintained offices at all nazi concentration camps held an office on the staff of the ss and police leaders and supplied personnel as needed to formations such as the einsatzgruppen 102 personnel assigned to these auxiliary duties were often removed from the gestapo chain of command and fell under the authority of branches of the ss 103 it was the gestapo chief ss brigadierführer heinrich müller who kept hitler abreast of the killing operations in the soviet union and who issued orders to the four einsatzgruppen that their continual work in the east was to be presented to the führer 104 female criminal investigation career according to regulations issued by the reich security main office in 1940 women who had been trained in social work or having a similar education could be hired as female detectives female youth leaders lawyers business administrators with experience in social work female leaders in the reichsarbeitsdienst and personnel administrators in the bund deutscher mädel were hired as detectives after a one year course if they had several years professional experience later nurses kindergarten teachers and trained female commercial employees with an aptitude for police work were hired as female detectives after a two year course as kriminaloberassistentin and could promote to a kriminalsekretärin after another two or three years in that grade the female detective could advance to kriminalobersekretärin further promotions to kriminalkommissarin and kriminalrätin were also possible 105 membership gestapo members in klatovy german occupied czechoslovakia in 1933 there was no purge of the german police forces 106 the vast majority of gestapo officers came from the police forces of the weimar republic members of the ss the sa and the nazi party also joined the gestapo but were less numerous 106 by march 1937 the gestapo employed an estimated 6 500 people in fifty four regional offices across the reich 107 additional staff were added in march 1938 consequent the annexation of austria and again in october 1938 with the acquisition of the sudetenland 107 in 1939 only 3 000 out of the total of 20 000 gestapo men held ss ranks and in most cases these were honorary 108 one man who served in the prussian gestapo in 1933 recalled that most of his co workers were by no means all nazis for the most part they were young professional civil service officers 108 the nazis valued police competence more than politics so in general in 1933 almost all of the men who served in the various state police forces under the weimar republic stayed on in their jobs 109 in würzburg which is one of the few places in germany where most of the gestapo records survived every member of the gestapo was a career policeman or had a police background 110 the canadian historian robert gellately wrote that most gestapo men were not nazis but at the same time were not opposed to the nazi regime which they were willing to serve in whatever task they were called upon to perform 110 over time membership in the gestapo included ideological training particularly once werner best assumed a leading role for training in april 1936 employing biological metaphors best emphasised a doctrine which encouraged members of the gestapo to view themselves as doctors to the national body in the struggle against pathogens and diseases among the implied sicknesses were communists freemasons and the churches and above and behind all these stood the jews 111 heydrich thought along similar lines and advocated both defensive and offensive measures on the part of the gestapo so as to prevent any subversion or destruction of the national socialist body 112 whether trained as police originally or not gestapo agents themselves were shaped by their socio political environment historian george c browder contends that there was a four part process authorisation bolstering routinisation and dehumanisation in effect which legitimised the psycho social atmosphere conditioning members of the gestapo to radicalised violence 113 browder also describes a sandwich effect where from above gestapo agents were subjected to ideologically oriented racism and criminal biological theories and from below the gestapo was transformed by ss personnel who did not have the proper police training which showed in their propensity for unrestrained violence 114 this admixture certainly shaped the gestapo s public image which they sought to maintain despite their increasing workload an image which helped them identify and eliminate enemies of the nazi state 115 population ratios methods and effectiveness contrary to popular belief the gestapo was not the all pervasive omnipotent agency in german society 116 in germany proper many towns and cities had fewer than 50 official gestapo personnel for example in 1939 stettin and frankfurt am main only had a total of 41 gestapo men combined 116 in düsseldorf the local gestapo office of only 281 men were responsible for the entire lower rhine region which comprised 4 million people 117 in lower franconia which included würzburg there were only twenty tw...
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