Meta tags:
Headings (most frequently used words):
criticism, on, epistemology, ethics, politics, objectivism, contents, philosophy, development, by, other, authors, impact, see, also, references, further, reading, external, links, metaphysics, objective, reality, reason, self, interest, individual, rights, and, capitalism, aesthetics, metaphysical, value, judgments, works, cited,
Text of the page (most frequently used words):
the (463), rand (264), and (219), that (109), ayn (90), #objectivism (69), philosophy (66), peikoff (56), isbn (45), not (45), from (43), new (43), are (42), for (42), objectivist (42), 978 (42), knowledge (37), his (36), with (35), capitalism (34), 1991 (32), one (32), which (29), she (28), this (27), life (25), man (25), have (25), all (23), theory (23), moral (23), reality (23), rights (23), 1964 (23), york (23), human (23), epistemology (22), value (22), art (22), has (22), her (22), reason (22), other (21), ethics (21), oclc (21), its (21), edit (20), values (19), 2009 (19), only (19), libertarianism (18), concepts (18), 2000 (18), concept (18), argued (18), political (17), smith (17), american (16), university (16), what (16), consciousness (16), also (16), but (16), according (16), libertarian (15), retrieved (15), state (15), atlas (15), 1990 (15), leonard (15), such (15), can (15), any (15), intellectual (14), right (14), philosophers (14), individual (14), press (14), 2005 (14), nature (14), they (14), must (14), existence (14), action (13), market (13), kelley (13), said (13), perception (13), more (13), wikipedia (12), non (12), free (12), self (12), shrugged (12), 1982 (12), based (12), see (12), ideas (12), specific (12), own (12), about (11), march (11), social (11), process (11), studies (11), work (11), 1995 (11), david (11), gotthelf (11), act (11), their (11), cannot (11), means (11), form (11), may (10), need (10), neo (10), realism (10), will (10), government (10), works (10), institute (10), being (10), branden (10), article (10), because (10), way (10), does (10), identity (10), use (9), was (9), articles (9), law (9), liberalism (9), anarchism (9), mind (9), virtue (9), freedom (9), fountainhead (9), living (9), selfishness (9), sciabarra (9), binswanger (9), evidence (9), douglas (9), criticism (9), some (9), system (9), therefore (9), force (9), live (9), issues (8), philosophical (8), metaphysical (8), objective (8), academic (8), movement (8), fiction (8), society (8), who (8), romantic (8), introduction (8), encyclopedia (8), further (8), original (8), 1967 (8), 1992 (8), fact (8), machan (8), senses (8), burns (8), psychology (8), against (8), philosopher (8), first (8), most (8), how (8), opposed (8), perceptual (8), given (8), many (7), ethical (7), theories (7), egoism (7), portal (7), russian (7), school (7), anti (7), classical (7), liberty (7), capital (7), nozick (7), journal (7), ideal (7), books (7), 2006 (7), dictionary (7), tara (7), archived (7), should (7), history (7), 1999 (7), 2020 (7), basis (7), were (7), term (7), concretes (7), purpose (7), without (7), fundamental (7), rejected (7), rational (7), them (7), sensory (7), proof (7), measurements (7), legal (6), page (6), 2026 (6), september (6), marxism (6), skepticism (6), logical (6), analytic (6), morality (6), economic (6), 2011 (6), 2012 (6), part (6), 1997 (6), 1984 (6), 1961 (6), 1957 (6), open (6), routledge (6), allan (6), harry (6), help (6), principle (6), nathaniel (6), cognitive (6), 2007 (6), faith (6), argument (6), example (6), dichotomy (6), been (6), writes (6), however (6), while (6), critics (6), both (6), objectivists (6), including (6), well (6), conceptual (6), judgments (6), would (6), defined (6), achieve (6), particular (6), him (6), actions (6), into (6), exist (6), statement (5), code (5), available (5), individualism (5), contemporary (5), normative (5), naturalism (5), people (5), logic (5), public (5), choice (5), center (5), related (5), series (5), book (5), manifesto (5), property (5), paul (5), friedman (5), left (5), economics (5), sense (5), randian (5), revolution (5), lanham (5), 1998 (5), robert (5), eds (5), signet (5), kukathas (5), gladstein (5), rasmussen (5), den (5), uyl (5), economy (5), 1987 (5), december (5), bernstein (5), long (5), pdf (5), 129 (5), same (5), since (5), these (5), politics (5), developed (5), claims (5), others (5), described (5), derives (5), think (5), full (5), beings (5), laws (5), considered (5), thus (5), happiness (5), alternative (5), primary (5), survival (5), whether (5), method (5), another (5), between (5), wrote (5), entities (5), tools (5), validity (5), itself (5), axioms (5), learn (5), toggle (4), contents (4), search (4), view (4), policy (4), using (4), you (4), commons (4), link (4), june (4), short (4), aesthetics (4), epistemological (4), united (4), rationalism (4), feminism (4), applied (4), idealism (4), modern (4), subjectivism (4), information (4), choose (4), versus (4), anarcho (4), rothbard (4), read (4), green (4), egoist (4), association (4), passion (4), radical (4), made (4), periodicals (4), 2014 (4), 1989 (4), john (4), love (4), needs (4), 1969 (4), links (4), 2008 (4), doi (4), publishing (4), rowman (4), littlefield (4), study (4), 451 (4), paperback (4), tibor (4), 1986 (4), oxford (4), companion (4), 2010 (4), literature (4), volition (4), fall (4), 116 (4), spring (4), standard (4), romanticism (4), 128 (4), racism (4), ought (4), synthetic (4), abstraction (4), cognition (4), authors (4), among (4), number (4), capitalist (4), important (4), principles (4), provide (4), development (4), great (4), primacy (4), faculty (4), believed (4), characteristic (4), certain (4), necessary (4), each (4), there (4), context (4), person (4), claim (4), through (4), critique (4), question (4), interest (4), organism (4), awareness (4), formation (4), identification (4), exists (4), direct (4), axiom (4), something (4), base (4), main (4), when (4), remove (4), please (4), hide (4), move (4), sidebar (4), languages (3), contact (3), under (3), terms (3), wikimedia (3), august (3), wikidata (3), errors (3), pages (3), multiple (3), different (3), natural (3), schools (3), british (3), western (3), eastern (3), post (3), existentialism (3), scientific (3), positivism (3), socialism (3), contract (3), scholasticism (3), confucianism (3), subjective (3), absolute (3), empiricism (3), hard (3), metaphysics (3), response (3), science (3), education (3), origins (3), punishment (3), minarchism (3), wing (3), voluntary (3), goddess (3), world (3), influence (3), homosexuality (3), january (3), along (3), 1971 (3), industrial (3), unknown (3), essays (3), novels (3), 364 (3), reading (3), america (3), then (3), torres (3), kamhi (3), thinkers (3), viable (3), chris (3), matthew (3), 2013 (3), schwartz (3), peter (3), activist (3), salmieri (3), library (3), best (3), random (3), february (3), why (3), 1905 (3), chandran (3), honderich (3), july (3), hicks (3), ellen (3), women (3), pittsburgh (3), major (3), barry (3), roderick (3), badhwar (3), cited (3), april (3), attention (3), papers (3), penguin (3), appeal (3), humanistic (3), personal (3), 125 (3), 110 (3), death (3), 108 (3), understanding (3), explored (3), charles (3), king (3), problem (3), altruism (3), 118 (3), 134 (3), 107 (3), material (3), 124 (3), 1996 (3), references (3), professor (3), than (3), comprehensive (3), subject (3), out (3), time (3), young (3), later (3), application (3), recognition (3), objectivity (3), artists (3), emotions (3), goal (3), effort (3), character (3), humanity (3), already (3), mental (3), explicitly (3), yet (3), thinking (3), abstractions (3), regards (3), artist (3), ultimately (3), consistent (3), could (3), happen (3), wage (3), file (3), necessarily (3), physical (3), order (3), protect (3), men (3), stated (3), content (3), pursuit (3), laissez (3), faire (3), establish (3), animal (3), integrates (3), achievement (3), just (3), mysticism (3), role (3), hand (3), labour (3), liberal (3), argues (3), detail (3), whim (3), remain (3), proposition (3), consequence (3), course (3), requires (3), productive (3), possible (3), entity (3), formed (3), independent (3), error (3), integrated (3), conscious (3), revelation (3), perceives (3), determined (3), item (3), belief (3), causation (3), conceptualized (3), create (3), expressed (3), message (3), quotations (3), topic (2), table (2), privacy (2), profit (2), categories (2), category (2), date (2), archival (2), style (2), excessively (2), detailed (2), updating (2), 2025 (2), description (2), org (2), states (2), national (2), control (2), italian (2), greek (2), german (2), middle (2), korean (2), chinese (2), structuralism (2), phenomenology (2), historicism (2), critical (2), utilitarianism (2), language (2), foundationalism (2), consequentialism (2), nihilism (2), monism (2), materialism (2), humanism (2), dualism (2), determinism (2), conservatism (2), collectivism (2), islamic (2), aristotelianism (2), christian (2), buddhist (2), second (2), particularism (2), practical (2), religion (2), methodology (2), kingdom (2), age (2), enlightenment (2), 1980 (2), freed (2), 1974 (2), anarchy (2), 1973 (2), 1979 (2), foreign (2), affirmative (2), abortion (2), korwin (2), mikke (2), george (2), von (2), mises (2), hoppe (2), hayek (2), block (2), bastiat (2), conservative (2), workers (2), statism (2), film (2), judgment (2), day (2), hero (2), 1940 (2), unconquered (2), stage (2), 1949 (2), night (2), 16th (2), galt (2), characters (2), letters (2), 1934 (2), 1945 (2), red (2), 1966 (2), 1943 (2), 1936 (2), bibliography (2), reference (2), publishers (2), magazine (2), external (2), touchstone (2), 7618 (2), louis (2), michelle (2), marder (2), chicago (2), stevens (2), 2nd (2), london (2), 415 (2), twentieth (2), century (2), 8476 (2), virtuous (2), park (2), pennsylvania (2), 271 (2), gregory (2), continuum (2), 452 (2), cite (2), dutton (2), 1989b (2), 1989a (2), ominous (2), parallels (2), end (2), edward (2), vol (2), realist (2), ted (2), writing (2), holzer (2), internet (2), heyl (2), lennox (2), metaethics (2), blackwell (2), mimi (2), reisel (2), 313 (2), thought (2), cocks (2), neil (2), palgrave (2), culture (2), jennifer (2), volitional (2), los (2), angeles (2), 385 (2), biological (2), teleological (2), 1016 (2), behavior (2), hamilton (2), lesson (2), andrew (2), norman (2), barr (2), 41717247 (2), 2021 (2), stanford (2), 117 (2), scholars (2), projects (2), literary (2), higher (2), 100 (2), 111 (2), ghate (2), onkar (2), anne (2), kenner (2), locke (2), edwin (2), harriman (2), leap (2), review (2), vii (2), 115 (2), murray (2), childs (2), roy (2), letter (2), 135 (2), 137 (2), intelligent (2), design (2), initiatives (2), 113 (2), greenspan (2), antitrust (2), 173 (2), 1981 (2), side (2), 131 (2), 112 (2), 103 (2), 120 (2), 182 (2), length (2), 126 (2), 130 (2), 310 (2), blair (2), reconsidered (2), online (2), 119 (2), aristotle (2), dipert (2), randall (2), campbell (2), 223 (2), summer (2), within (2), stolen (2), newsletter (2), 121 (2), author (2), during (2), affiliated (2), late (2), defense (2), austin (2), presented (2), termed (2), intellectuals (2), mainstream (2), kept (2), 109 (2), former (2), positive (2), opinion (2), often (2), although (2), 127 (2), needed (2), impact (2), attempts (2), insights (2), austrian (2), reisman (2), emphasizes (2), induction (2), benevolence (2), emphasis (2), used (2), version (2), involves (2), arguing (2), characterized (2), closed (2), change (2), legacy (2), several (2), romanticists (2), source (2), deal (2), emotional (2), possesses (2), power (2), artistic (2), uses (2), embody (2), believes (2), characteristics (2), idea (2), keep (2), either (2), even (2), though (2), show (2), usually (2), serves (2), understand (2), defines (2), selective (2), true (2), respect (2), percepts (2), instead (2), conservatives (2), involuntary (2), child (2), justified (2), every (2), worship (2), limited (2), granted (2), inventors (2), furthermore (2), commercial (2), product (2), limits (2), retaliatory (2), objectively (2), police (2), courts (2), proper (2), citizens (2), except (2), services (2), justice (2), initiation (2), derivatives (2), defining (2), specifically (2), understood (2), results (2), created (2), consider (2), rather (2), maintains (2), seeking (2), function (2), type (2), organized (2), persuasion (2), indirect (2), slavery (2), monopoly (2), merchant (2), marxist (2), corporate (2), community (2), simple (2), accumulation (2), authoritarian (2), supply (2), institutional (2), systems (2), surplus (2), definitions (2), criticized (2), arguments (2), might (2), attempt (2), instance (2), applications (2), basic (2), tool (2), rationality (2), explains (2), essence (2), sake (2), nor (2), corollary (2), rejection (2), obligation (2), level (2), contradiction (2), humans (2), chooses (2), required (2), alive (2), before (2), obtain (2), food (2), importance (2), acceptance (2), guide (2), issue (2), connections (2), possessing (2), promote (2), organisms (2), physiology (2), includes (2), choices (2), maintained (2), single (2), matter (2), unclear (2), data (2), relationship (2), logically (2), false (2), perceptually (2), facts (2), implications (2), rest (2), emotion (2), reliance (2), like (2), beyond (2), current (2), rejects (2), dog (2), etc (2), thing (2), known (2), omitted (2), mean (2), relevant (2), quantity (2), units (2), two (2), possess (2), omitting (2), integration (2), distinguishing (2), acquired (2), processed (2), object (2), consequently (2), things (2), evident (2), derived (2), validation (2), begins (2), identifies (2), dragons (2), inductive (2), differently (2), aware (2), attributes (2), differentiating (2), heroic (2), noblest (2), activity (2), name (2), discovered (2), notably (2), party (2), contains (2), excessive (2), improve (2), recent (2), events (2), talk (2), here (2), appearance (2), upload (2), changes (2), english (2), subsection (2), log (2), account (2), donate (2), menu (2), add, mobile, cookie, statistics, developers, conduct, safety, contacts, disclaimers, text, additional, apply, site, agree, registered, trademark, organization, foundation, inc, creative, attribution, sharealike, license, rendered, parsoid, last, edited, utc, hidden, cs1, linking, deprecated, repositories, image, manual, scaled, images, calling, interlanguage, maintenance, mdy, dates, atheism, traditions, https, index, php, title, oldid, 1370969538, yale, lux, israel, fast, international, authority, databases, spanish, slovene, polish, maltese, french, finland, dutch, danish, czech, canada, scottish, irish, australian, vietnamese, taiwanese, pakistani, iranian, japanese, indonesian, indian, africana, ethiopian, egyptian, bantu, african, yugoslav, romanian, georgian, aztec, indigenous, region, constructionism, postmodernism, posthumanism, hermeneutics, feminist, deconstruction, frankfurt, continental, wittgensteinian, vienna, circle, transactionalism, scientism, systemics, reformed, rawlsian, quietism, postanalytic, ordinary, quinean, meta, internalism, externalism, coherentism, falsificationism, experimental, communitarianism, analytical, cosmism, postcritique, kyoto, spinozism, nietzscheanism, newtonianism, hegelianism, krausism, kierkegaardianism, kantianism, cartesianism, transcendentalism, reductionism, pragmatism, pessimism, modernism, kokugaku, transcendental, holism, edo, vishishtadvaita, shuddhadvaita, nimbarka, sampradaya, dvaita, bhedabheda, advaita, acintya, bheda, abheda, vedanta, sufi, kalam, judeo, illuminationism, avicennism, averroism, thomism, scotism, occamism, byzantine, augustinianism, renaissance, jewish, navya, nyāya, confucian, xuanxue, zen, tiantai, huayan, chan, medieval, yoga, samkhya, vaisheshika, nyaya, mīmāṃsā, cārvāka, ajñana, ājīvika, hindu, sophistic, sextii, sophists, atomists, eleatics, pythagoreans, ionians, pre, socratic, peripatetic, academy, platonism, neopythagoreanism, megarian, epicureanism, stoicism, pyrrhonism, hellenistic, eretrian, cynicism, cyrenaics, dispositio, roman, yogacara, tibetan, śūnyatā, svatantrika, prasangika, sautrāntika, sarvāstivadā, pudgalavada, madhyamaka, abhidharma, zurvanism, zoroastrianism, yangism, taoism, mohism, mithraism, mazdakism, logicians, legalism, syādvāda, anekantavada, jain, agriculturalism, ancient, era, event, ontology, functionalism, epiphenomenalism, emergentism, eliminativism, behaviorism, relativism, physicalism, nominalism, conceptualism, atomism, incompatibilism, compatibilism, universalism, absolutism, deontology, solipsism, fideism, institutionalism, formalism, aesthetic, theoretical, mathematics, metaphilosophy, branches, outline, sovereign, citizen, small, authoritarianism, freeman, land, cultural, constitutionalism, conscientious, objector, austro, fascism, abolitionism, republicans, democrats, country, republicanism, utopia, legislation, 1970, war, drugs, parties, alliances, lgbt, internal, debates, immigration, intervention, autarchy, vanopslagh, seymour, sarwark, milei, massie, madelin, lindner, klaus, jorgensen, johnson, jacobs, hannan, coolidge, cleveland, bernier, politicians, thoreau, szasz, stirner, spooner, satoshi, nakamoto, paine, mcelroy, boétie, konkin, hess, emerson, stossel, spencer, simon, paterson, nock, molinari, lane, kinsella, jillette, herbert, goldwater, brennan, tucker, warren, proudhon, öcalan, marcuse, kropotkin, hodgskin, guérin, goldman, godwin, fourier, déjacque, cleyre, chomsky, camus, bookchin, bakunin, bleeding, heart, agorism, geolibertarianism, syncretic, syndicalism, mao, spontex, communism, guild, communization, communalism, autonomism, syndicalist, queer, pacifist, mutualist, insurrectionary, individualist, communist, collectivist, black, voluntaryism, propertarianism, transhumanism, crypto, techno, paternalism, paleo, consequentialist, fusionism, autarchism, management, councils, stateless, ownership, refusal, reclamation, illegalism, federalism, anarchist, expropriative, decentralization, counter, civil, cult, depictions, iii, gawaahi, 1942, 1941, screen, adaptations, list, 3000, journals, early, writings, plays, came, 1932, pawn, screenplays, collected, nonfiction, 2015, 1938, anthem, website, line, advancement, media, thousand, oaks, 750831024, 2008009151, lccn, 4129, 6580, 4135, 9781412965811, n221, 363, cato, sage, hamowy, ronald, kathleen, 70783649, 3519, athena, unilateral, transfers, transformation, court, 43787446, 8126, 9372, esthetic, jacqueline, benewick, philip, 15881, 263, 264, 31710378, 8026, 60971741, 521, 86050, cambridge, 42397381, 9760, root, reward, 853618653, 06227, 31133644, 01440, sanctions, shook, thoemmes, 84371, 037, mayhew, 59148253, 21665, answers, 733753672, meridian, 20353709, 01030, 13249, incompatibility, 16393, house, 35th, anniversary, 525, 94892, 01101, 8128, 2850, stein, masterworks, tradition, lang, 41096316, 8204, 4144, craig, 318280731, 07310, baton, rouge, 8071, 1268, louisiana, 926479, indio, madison, 70662150, 615, 13041, teacher, erika, stephen, jenny, waithe, mary, boston, kluwer, 224, 30029022, 7923, 2808, 207, 1900, today, james, 617508678, 8229, 4400, 2016, companions, chichester, 4051, 8684, wiley, 534, 57625, wadsworth, 319595162, 8264, 4513, westport, greenwood, 40359365, 30321, 252, 01407, illinois, philosophic, kindle, cham, switzerland, 030, 53072, macmillan, questioning, subjectivity, arts, 313665028, 532487, maryland, 5381, 3995, year, launched, future, eric, nash, 8402, 1109, esteem, 24388, anchor, barbara, 9625336, regulation, 178, 0749, 5978, 90019, 154, organizational, decision, processes, 4359, 14134854, 312, 00243, martin, emily, sex, measuring, 206, jstor, 2307, 193, zalta, neera, 297, sharlet, jeff, finally, caught, research, involve, chronicle, 386n, mautner, thomas, 469, 740, harvey, benjamin, rutland, herald, ism, struts, stuff, affairs, 544, 58648, 350, radicals, freewheeling, doherty, brian, 144772216, s2cid, 1177, 0022167884244004, benefits, hazards, heller, doubleday, 51399, xii, platform, hsieh, diana, explained, khawaja, irfan, comments, october, note, our, members, 426, 422, 417, egalitarianism, revolt, anatomy, 250, 251, 368, lockitch, keith, orange, county, register, ten, commandments, epstein, alex, 2003, assault, secular, effects, children, hessen, common, fallacies, alan, lexicon, speech, 226, 453, 00634, voice, wortham, columbus, 8142, 0318, ohio, 365, 284, 392, 395, 356, 358, 165, 355, 351, 352, 320, 319, 150, 155, 143, 147, 141, 274, 354, 1985, reply, reprinted, 1978, 205, 184, personalist, patrick, 1983, 731, harper, etymology, 230, 1012, 1013, monographs, poughkeepsie, 49875339, 57724, 045, essay, 289, 151, 323, 171, 181, lecture, 185, quine, aristotelian, essentialism, brain, quotes, passage, elsewhere, 1963, 1037, 16308, 1040, rubin, harriet, times, 259, mclemee, scott, lingua, franca, heirs, gone, accessed, 1170, 1171, 1990s, likely, encountered, classrooms, dedicated, fostering, scholarly, division, scholar, chairman, colleagues, considering, unique, intellectually, interesting, worth, debating, refereed, began, programs, fellowships, supported, 140, north, carolina, chapel, hill, texas, 139, 138, generally, dismissed, fiercely, columbia, outside, notes, deliberately, excluded, mentioned, popular, entries, entry, strongest, college, students, usa, attracted, little, defenses, 136, 133, 132, anthony, quinton, ideology, sidorsky, biographer, says, formative, years, protégé, referred, especially, powerful, appeals, youth, alarmed, abandon, outgrown, endorsers, recognize, phenomenon, attribute, loss, youthful, inability, resist, contrast, historian, dismiss, shallow, thinker, appealing, adolescents, thinks, miss, significance, gateway, drug, conformity, pressures, aspects, discussed, integrate, publication, writers, fields, ranging, teleology, selfish, path, romance, treatise, retains, collaboration, upon, 123, physics, 122, emphasized, applying, areas, contextual, conception, drawing, 2004, explicated, 2001, regarding, pay, place, less, sanction, controversial, contradicts, commitment, reasoned, dogmatic, discussion, debate, expansion, refinement, revision, toward, fellow, travelers, contested, unrugged, gilbert, harman, myself, published, exposition, discusses, theorizes, surveys, briefer, introductions, clockwise, upper, worked, emotionalism, completely, historically, philosophically, subscribe, subjectivist, brought, intensity, projected, reactions, audiences, color, imagination, originality, excitement, consequences, oriented, highest, noting, absent, robbed, dramatic, adding, endeavors, portray, roark, symbolism, represented, expression, extension, greatness, sort, shorthand, standing, large, allowing
Text of the page (random words):
existence has primacy over consciousness which must conform to it any other type of argument rand termed the primacy of consciousness including any variant of metaphysical subjectivism or theism 21 objectivist philosophy derives its explanations of action and causation from the axiom of identity referring to causation as the law of identity applied to action 22 according to rand it is entities that act and every action is the action of an entity the way entities act is caused by the specific nature or identity of those entities if they were different they would act differently as with the other axioms an implicit understanding of causation is derived from one s primary observations of causal connections among entities even before it is verbally identified and serves as the basis of further knowledge 23 epistemology reason edit according to rand attaining knowledge beyond what is given by perception requires both volition or the exercise of free will and performing a specific method of validation by observation concept formation and the application of inductive and deductive reasoning for example a belief in dragons however sincere does not mean that reality includes dragons a process of proof identifying the basis in reality of a claimed item of knowledge is necessary to establish its truth 24 objectivist epistemology begins with the principle that consciousness is identification this is understood to be a direct consequence of the metaphysical principle that existence is identity 25 rand defined reason as the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man s senses 26 rand wrote the fundamental concept of method the one on which all the others depend is logic the distinguishing characteristic of logic the art of non contradictory identification indicates the nature of the actions actions of consciousness required to achieve a correct identification and their goal knowledge while omitting the length complexity or specific steps of the process of logical inference as well as the nature of the particular cognitive problem involved in any given instance of using logic 27 according to rand consciousness possesses a specific and finite identity just like everything else that exists therefore it must operate by a specific method of validation an item of knowledge cannot be disqualified by being arrived at by a specific process in a particular form thus for rand the fact that consciousness must itself possess identity implies the rejection of both universal skepticism based on the limits of consciousness as well as any claim to revelation emotion or faith based belief objectivist epistemology maintains that all knowledge is ultimately based on perception percepts not sensations are the given the self evident 28 rand considered the validity of the senses to be axiomatic and said that purported arguments to the contrary all commit the fallacy of the stolen concept 29 by presupposing the validity of concepts that in turn presuppose the validity of the senses 30 she said that perception being determined physiologically is incapable of error for example optical illusions are errors in the conceptual identification of what is seen not errors of sight itself 31 the validity of sense perception therefore is not susceptible to proof because it is presupposed by all proof as proof is only a matter of adducing sensory evidence nor should its validity be denied since the conceptual tools one would have to use to do this are derived from sensory data perceptual error therefore is not possible rand consequently rejected epistemological skepticism as she said that the skeptics claim to knowledge distorted by the form or the means of perception is impossible 31 the objectivist theory of perception distinguishes between the form and object the form in which an organism perceives is determined by the physiology of its sensory systems whatever form the organism perceives it in what it perceives the object of perception is reality 32 rand consequently rejected the kantian dichotomy between things as we perceive them and things as they are in themselves rand wrote the attack on man s consciousness and particularly on his conceptual faculty has rested on the unchallenged premise that any knowledge acquired by a process of consciousness is necessarily subjective and cannot correspond to the facts of reality since it is processed knowledge but all knowledge is processed knowledge whether on the sensory perceptual or conceptual level an unprocessed knowledge would be a knowledge acquired without means of cognition 33 rand s introduction to objectivist epistemology explains her theory of concept formation the aspect of epistemology given the most elaboration by rand is the theory of concept formation which she presented in introduction to objectivist epistemology she argued that concepts are formed by a process of measurement omission peikoff described this as follows to form a concept one mentally isolates a group of concretes of distinct perceptual units on the basis of observed similarities which distinguish them from all other known concretes similarity is the relationship between two or more existents which possess the same characteristic s but in different measure or degree then by a process of omitting the particular measurements of these concretes one integrates them into a single new mental unit the concept which subsumes all concretes of this kind a potentially unlimited number the integration is completed and retained by the selection of a perceptual symbol a word to designate it a concept is a mental integration of two or more units possessing the same distinguishing characteristic s with their particular measurements omitted 34 according to rand the term measurements omitted does not mean in this context that measurements are regarded as non existent it means that measurements exist but are not specified that measurements must exist is an essential part of the process the principle is the relevant measurements must exist in some quantity but may exist in any quantity 35 rand argued that concepts are organized hierarchically concepts such as dog which bring together concretes available in perception can be differentiated into the concepts of dachshund poodle etc or integrated along with cat etc into the concept of animal abstract concepts such as animal can be further integrated via abstraction from abstractions into such concepts as living thing concepts are formed in the context of knowledge available a young child differentiates dogs from cats and chickens but need not explicitly differentiate them from deep sea tube worms or from other types of animals not yet known to him to form a concept dog 36 because of its characterization of concepts as open ended classifications that go well beyond the characteristics included in their past or current definitions objectivist epistemology rejects the analytic synthetic distinction as a false dichotomy 37 and denies the possibility of a priori knowledge 38 rand rejected feeling as sources of knowledge rand acknowledged the importance of emotion for human beings but she maintained that emotions are a consequence of the conscious or subconscious ideas that a person already accepts not a means of achieving awareness of reality emotions are not tools of cognition 39 rand also rejected all forms of faith or mysticism terms that she used synonymously she defined faith as the acceptance of allegations without evidence or proof either apart from or against the evidence of one s senses and reason mysticism is the claim to some non sensory non rational non definable non identifiable means of knowledge such as instinct intuition revelation or any form of just knowing 40 reliance on revelation is like reliance on a ouija board it bypasses the need to show how it connects its results to reality faith for rand is not a short cut to knowledge but a short circuit destroying it 41 objectivism acknowledges the facts that human beings have limited knowledge are vulnerable to error and do not instantly understand all of the implications of their knowledge 42 according to peikoff one can be certain of a proposition if all of the available evidence verifies it i e it can be logically integrated with the rest of one s knowledge one is then certain within the context of the evidence 43 rand rejected the traditional rationalist empiricist dichotomy arguing that it embodies a false alternative conceptually based knowledge independent of perception rationalism versus perceptually based knowledge independent of concepts empiricism rand argued that neither is possible because the senses provide the material of knowledge while conceptual processing is also needed to establish knowable propositions criticism on epistemology edit the philosopher john hospers who was influenced by rand and shared her moral and political opinions disagreed with her concerning issues of epistemology 44 some philosophers such as tibor machan have argued that the objectivist epistemology is incomplete 45 psychology professor robert l campbell writes that the relationship between objectivist epistemology and cognitive science remains unclear because rand made claims about human cognition and its development which belong to psychology yet rand also argued that philosophy is logically prior to psychology and in no way dependent on it 46 47 the philosophers randall dipert and roderick long ar arz es ru zh have argued that objectivist epistemology conflates the perceptual process by which judgments are formed with the way in which they are to be justified thereby leaving it unclear how sensory data can validate judgments structured propositionally 48 49 ethics self interest edit objectivism includes an extensive treatment of ethical concerns rand wrote on morality in her works we the living 1936 atlas shrugged 1957 and the virtue of selfishness 1964 rand defines morality as a code of values to guide man s choices and actions the choices and actions that determine the purpose and the course of his life 50 rand maintained that the first question is not what should the code of values be the first question is does man need values at all and why according to rand it is only the concept of life that makes the concept of value possible and the fact that a living entity is determines what it ought to do 51 rand writes there is only one fundamental alternative in the universe existence or non existence and it pertains to a single class of entities to living organisms the existence of inanimate matter is unconditional the existence of life is not it depends on a specific course of action it is only a living organism that faces a constant alternative the issue of life or death rand argued that the primary emphasis of man s free will is the choice to think or not to think thinking is not an automatic function in any hour and issue of his life man is free to think or to evade that effort thinking requires a state of full focused awareness the act of focusing one s consciousness is volitional man can focus his mind to a full active purposefully directed awareness of reality or he can unfocus it and let himself drift in a semiconscious daze merely reacting to any chance stimulus of the immediate moment at the mercy of his undirected sensory perceptual mechanism and of any random associational connections it might happen to make 52 according to rand therefore possessing free will human beings must choose their values one does not automatically have one s own life as his ultimate value whether in fact a person s actions promote and fulfill his own life or not is a question of fact as it is with all other organisms but whether a person will act to promote his well being is up to him not hard wired into his physiology man has the power to act as his own destroyer and that is the way he has acted through most of his history 53 in atlas shrugged rand wrote man s mind is his basic tool of survival life is given to him survival is not his body is given to him its sustenance is not his mind is given to him its content is not to remain alive he must act and before he can act he must know the nature and purpose of his action he cannot obtain his food without knowledge of food and of the way to obtain it he cannot dig a ditch or build a cyclotron without a knowledge of his aim and the means to achieve it to remain alive he must think 54 in her novels the fountainhead and atlas shrugged she also emphasizes the importance of productive work romantic love and art to human happiness and dramatizes the ethical character of their pursuit the primary virtue in objectivist ethics is rationality as rand meant it the recognition and acceptance of reason as one s only source of knowledge one s only judge of values and one s only guide to action 55 the purpose of a moral code rand said is to provide the principles by reference to which man can achieve the values his survival requires 56 rand summarizes if man chooses to live a rational ethics will tell him what principles of action are required to implement his choice if he does not choose to live nature will take its course reality confronts a man with a great many must s but all of them are conditional the formula of realistic necessity is you must if and the if stands for man s choice if you want to achieve a certain goal 57 rand s explanation of values presents the proposition that an individual s primary moral obligation is to achieve his own well being it is for his life and his self interest that an individual ought to obey a moral code 58 ethical egoism is a corollary of setting man s life as the moral standard 59 rand believed that rational egoism is the logical consequence of humans following evidence to its logical conclusion the only alternative would be that they live without orientation to reality a corollary to rand s endorsement of self interest is her rejection of the ethical doctrine of altruism which she defined in the sense of auguste comte s altruism he popularized the term 60 as a moral obligation to live for the sake of others rand also rejected subjectivism a whim worshiper or hedonist according to rand is not motivated by a desire to live his own human life but by a wish to live on a sub human level instead of using that which promotes my human life as his standard of value he mistakes that which i mindlessly happen to value for a standard of value in contradiction of the fact that existentially he is a human and therefore rational organism the i value in whim worship or hedonism can be replaced with we value he values they value or god values and still it would remain dissociated from reality rand repudiated the equation of rational selfishness with hedonistic or whim worshiping selfishness without a self she said that the former is good and the latter bad and that there is a fundamental difference between them 61 for rand all of the principal virtues are applications of the role of reaso...
|
