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scientists later called the democratic republican party split into separate factions in the 1820s one of which became the democratic party after 1832 the democrats were opposed by another faction that named themselves whigs after the patriots of the 1770s both of these parties proclaimed their devotion to republicanism in the era of the second party system republican motherhood edit under the new government after the revolution republican motherhood became an ideal as exemplified by abigail adams and mercy otis warren the first duty of the republican woman was to instill republican values in her children and to avoid luxury and ostentation 41 two generations later the daughters and granddaughters of these republican mothers appropriated republican values into their lives as they sought independence and equality in the workforce during the 1830s thousands of female mill workers went on strike to battle for their right to fair wages and independence as there had been major pay cuts many of these women were daughters of independent land owners and descendants of men who had fought in the revolutionary war they identified as daughters of freemen in their fight for independence at the mills women would incorporate rhetoric from the revolution to convey the importance and strength of their purpose to their corporate employers as well as to other women if the revolutionary war was fought to secure independence from great britain then these daughters of freemen could fight for the same republican values that through striking would give them fair pay and independence just as the men had 42 property rights edit supreme court justice joseph story 1779 1845 made the protection of property rights by the courts a major component of american republicanism a precocious legal scholar story was appointed to the court by james madison in 1811 he and chief justice john marshall made the court a bastion of nationalism along the lines of marshall s federalist party and a protector of the rights of property against runaway democracy story opposed jacksonian democracy because it was inclined to repudiate lawful debts and was too often guilty of what he called oppression of property rights by republican governments 43 story held that the right of the citizens to the free enjoyment of their property legally acquired was a great and fundamental principle of a republican government 44 newmyer 1985 presents story as a statesman of the old republic who tried to rise above democratic politics and to shape the law in accordance with the republicanism of story s heroes alexander hamilton and john marshall as well as the new england whigs of the 1820s and 1830s such as daniel webster 45 historians agree that justice story as much or more than marshall or anyone else did indeed reshape american law in a conservative direction that protected property rights 46 equitable distribution of wealth edit according to journalist jamelle bouie among the oldest and most potent strains of american thinking about self government is the belief that it cannot coexist with mass immiseration and gross disparities of wealth and status 47 he quotes john adams in a 1776 letter the balance of power in a society accompanies the balance of property in land the only possible way then of preserving the balance of power on the side of equal liberty and public virtue is to make the acquisition of land easy to every member of society to make a division of land into small quantities so that the multitude may be possessed of landed estates if the multitude is possessed of the balance of real estate the multitude will take care of the liberty virtue and interest of the multitude in all acts of government 47 kentucky settlers petitioning the confederation congress for statehood in 1784 it is a well known truth that the riches and strength of a free country does not consist in property being vested in a few individuals but the more general it is distributed the more it promotes industry population and frugality and even morality 48 47 historians joseph fishkin and william e forbath the republican conception of liberty was not noninterference but nondomination freedom from both private and public overlords 47 49 political scientists jacob s hacker and paul pierson quote a warning by greek roman historian plutarch an imbalance between rich and poor is the oldest and most fatal ailment of all republics 50 some academic researchers allege that the us political system risks drifting towards oligarchy through the influence of corporations the wealthy and other special interest groups 51 52 a study by political scientists martin gilens princeton university and benjamin page northwestern university released in april 2014 concluded that the u s government doesn t represent the interests of the majority of its citizens but instead is ruled by those of the rich and powerful the researchers after analyzing nearly 1 800 u s policies between 1981 and 2002 stated that government policies tend to favor special interests and lobbying organizations and that whenever a majority of citizens disagrees with the economic elites the elites tend to prevail in getting their way 53 while not characterizing the united states as an oligarchy or plutocracy outright gilens and page give weight to the idea of a civil oligarchy as used by jeffrey a winters saying winters has posited a comparative theory of oligarchy in which the wealthiest citizens even in a civil oligarchy like the united states dominate policy concerning crucial issues of wealth and income protection in their study gilens and page reached these conclusions when a majority of citizens disagrees with economic elites and or with organized interests they generally lose moreover because of the strong status quo bias built into the us political system even when fairly large majorities of americans favor policy change they generally do not get it t he preferences of the average american appear to have only a minuscule near zero statistically non significant impact upon public policy 54 national debt edit jefferson and albert gallatin focused on the danger that the public debt unless it was paid off would be a threat to republican values they were appalled that hamilton was increasing the national debt and using it to solidify his federalist base gallatin was the republican party s chief expert on fiscal issues and as treasury secretary under jefferson and madison worked hard to lower taxes and lower the debt while at the same time paying cash for the louisiana purchase and funding the war of 1812 burrows says of gallatin his own fears of personal dependency and his small shopkeeper s sense of integrity both reinforced by a strain of radical republican thought that originated in england a century earlier convinced him that public debts were a nursery of multiple public evils corruption legislative impotence executive tyranny social inequality financial speculation and personal indolence not only was it necessary to extinguish the existing debt as rapidly as possible he argued but congress would have to ensure against the accumulation of future debts by more diligently supervising government expenditures 55 andrew jackson believed the national debt was a national curse and he took special pride in paying off the entire national debt in 1835 56 politicians ever since have used the issue of a high national debt to denounce the other party for profligacy and a threat to fiscal soundness and the nation s future 57 military service edit civic virtue required men to put civic goals ahead of their personal desires and to volunteer to fight for their country military service thus was an integral duty of the citizen as john randolph of roanoke put it when citizen and soldier shall be synonymous terms then you will be safe 58 scott 1984 notes that in both the american and french revolutions distrust of foreign mercenaries led to the concept of a national citizen army and the definition of military service was changed from a choice of careers to a civic duty 59 herrera 2001 explains that an appreciation of self governance is essential to any understanding of the american military character before the civil war military service was considered an important demonstration of patriotism and an essential component of citizenship to soldiers military service was a voluntary negotiated and temporary abeyance of self governance by which they signaled their responsibility as citizens in practice self governance in military affairs came to include personal independence enlistment negotiations petitions to superior officials militia constitutions and negotiations regarding discipline together these affected all aspects of military order discipline and life 60 61 united states constitution edit the founding fathers wanted republicanism because its principles guaranteed liberty with opposing limited powers offsetting one another they thought change should occur slowly as many were afraid that a democracy by which they meant a direct democracy would allow a majority of voters at any time to trample rights and liberties they believed the most formidable of these potential majorities was that of the poor against the rich 62 they thought democracy could take the form of mob rule that could be shaped on the spot by a demagogue 63 therefore they devised a written constitution that could be amended only by a super majority preserved competing sovereignties in the constituent states 64 gave the control of the upper house senate to the states and created an electoral college comprising a small number of elites to select the president they set up a house of representatives to represent the people in practice the electoral college soon gave way to control by political parties in 1776 most states required property ownership to vote but most white male citizens owned farms in the 90 rural nation so it was limiting to women native americans and slaves as the country urbanized and people took on different work the property ownership requirement was gradually dropped by many states property requirements were gradually dismantled in state after state so that all had been eliminated by 1850 so that few if any economic barriers remained to prevent white adult males from voting 65 terminology in legal rulings edit the term republic does not appear in the declaration of independence but does appear once in the constitution in article iv which guarantee s to every state in this union a republican form of government what exactly the writers of the constitution felt this should mean is uncertain the supreme court in luther v borden 1849 declared that the definition of republic was a political question in which it would not intervene during reconstruction the constitutional clause was the legal foundation for the extensive congressional control over the eleven former confederate states there was no such oversight over the border slave states that had remained in the union 66 in two later cases the supreme court did establish a basic definition in united states v cruikshank 1875 the court ruled that the equal rights of citizens were inherent to the idea of republic the opinion of the court from in re duncan 1891 67 held that the right of the people to choose their government is also part of the definition it is also generally assumed that the clause prevents any state from being a monarchy or a dictatorship due to the 1875 and 1891 court decisions establishing basic definition in the first version 1892 of the pledge of allegiance which included the word republic and like article iv which refers to a republican form of government the basic definition of republic is implied and continues to be so in all subsequent versions republicanism in american history edit south slavery jim crow and women s suffrage edit both democratic ancient greece and the ancient roman republic permitted slavery but many early americans questioned slavery s compatibility with republican values in 1850 sen william h seward declared on the senate floor that slavery was incompatible with the security welfare and greatness of nations and that when slavery prevails and controls in any republican state just to that extent it subverts the principle of democracy and converts the state into an aristocracy or a despotism 68 the republican party was formed by antislavery forces across the north in reaction to the kansas nebraska act of 1854 that promoted democracy or popular sovereignty by saying new settlers could decide themselves whether or not to have slavery the party officially designated itself republican because the name had been used by the jeffersonians in the 1790s and 1800s in view of the necessity of battling for the first principles of republican government resolved the michigan state convention and against the schemes of aristocracy the most revolting and oppressive with which the earth was ever cursed or man debased we will co operate and be known as republicans 69 70 the antebellum south took the reverse view interpreting northern policies against slavery as a threat to their republican values in particular the system of checks and balances according to j mills thornton 71 after the war the republicans believed that the constitutional guarantee of republicanism enabled congress to reconstruct the political system of the former confederate states the main legislation was explicitly designed to promote republicanism 72 radical republicans pushed forward to secure not only citizenship for freedmen through the 14th amendment but also to give them the vote through the 15th amendment they held that the concept of republicanism meant that true political knowledge was to be gained in exercising the right to vote and organizing for elections susan b anthony and other advocates of woman suffrage said republicanism covered them too as they demanded the vote 73 74 progressive era edit a central theme of the progressive era was fear of corruption one of the core ideas of republicanism since the 1770s the progressives restructured the political system to combat entrenched interests for example through the direct election of senators to ban influences such as alcohol that were viewed as corrupting and to extend the vote to women who were seen as being morally pure and less corruptible 75 questions of performing civic duty were brought up in presidential campaigns and world war i in the presidential election of 1888 republicans emphasized that the democratic candidate grover cleveland had purchased a substitute to fight for him in the civil war while his opponent general benjamin harrison had fought in numerous battles 76 in 1917 a great debate took place over woodrow wilson s proposal to draft men into the u s army after war broke out in europe many said it violated the republican notion of freely given civic duty to force people to serve 77 in the end wilson was successful and the selective service act of 1917 was passed democracy an...
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