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ne reserve around the pitcairn islands in the southern pacific ocean to protect its special biodiversity the area of 830 000 square kilometres 320 000 sq mi surpassed the chagos marine protected area as the world s largest contiguous marine reserve 95 96 until the august 2016 expansion of the papahānaumokuākea marine national monument in the united states to 1 510 000 square kilometres 580 000 sq mi in january 2016 the uk government announced the intention to create a marine protected area around ascension island the protected area will be 234 291 square kilometres 90 460 sq mi half of which will be closed to fishing 97 the eventual marine park covered 100 of the eez 98 on 13 november 2020 it was announced that the 687 247 square kilometres 265 348 sq mi of the waters surrounding the tristan da cunha and neighboring islands will become a marine protection zone the move will make the zone the largest no take zone in the atlantic and the fourth largest on the planet 99 100 marine protected areas as percentage of territorial waters edit a map of 35 very large mpas collectively covering 4 6 of global ocean area 2019 the following shows a list of countries and their marine protected areas as percentage of their territorial waters click show to expand 101 country mpa in of territorial waters in 2022 albania 2 80 algeria 0 1 american samoa 8 70 andorra no data angola 0 00 antigua and barbuda 0 3 argentina 11 8 armenia no data aruba 0 00 australia 44 3 austria no data azerbaijan 0 4 bahamas the 7 9 bahrain 21 1 bangladesh 5 4 barbados 0 00 belarus no data belgium 38 1 belize 11 0 benin 0 00 bermuda 0 00 bhutan no data bolivia no data bosnia and herzegovina 0 00 botswana no data brazil 26 8 british virgin islands 0 00 brunei darussalam 0 20 bulgaria 8 10 burkina faso no data burundi no data cabo verde 0 00 cambodia 1 4 cameroon 10 9 canada 9 1 cayman islands 0 01 central african republic no data chad no data channel islands no data chile 41 4 china 5 5 colombia 17 1 comoros 0 04 congo dem rep 0 2 congo rep 3 0 costa rica 29 0 côte d ivoire 0 01 croatia 9 0 cuba 3 9 curaçao 0 00 cyprus 8 6 czechia no data denmark 18 3 djibouti 0 2 dominica 0 0 dominican republic 17 3 ecuador 19 1 egypt arab rep 5 0 el salvador 0 7 equatorial guinea 0 2 eritrea 0 00 estonia 18 8 eswatini no data ethiopia no data faroe islands 0 00 fiji 0 9 finland 12 0 france 49 8 french polynesia 0 00 gabon 28 8 gambia the 0 06 georgia 0 7 germany 45 5 ghana 0 10 gibraltar 0 0 greece 4 5 greenland 4 5 grenada 0 01 guam 0 0 guatemala 0 8 guinea 0 5 guinea bissau 9 0 guyana 0 0 haiti 1 5 honduras 4 6 hong kong sar china 0 0 hungary no data iceland 0 4 india 0 2 indonesia 3 1 iran islamic rep 0 8 iraq 0 00 ireland 2 33 isle of man 0 00 israel 0 0 italy 10 6 jamaica 0 8 japan 13 9 jordan 1 0 kazakhstan 50 7 kenya 0 7 kiribati 11 8 korea dem people s rep 0 0 korea rep 2 5 kosovo no data kuwait 1 4 kyrgyz republic no data lao pdr no data latvia 16 0 lebanon 0 2 lesotho no data liberia 0 1 libya 0 6 liechtenstein no data lithuania 25 6 luxembourg no data macao sar china no data madagascar 0 9 malawi no data malaysia 5 6 maldives 0 1 mali no data malta 7 4 marshall islands 0 3 mauritania 4 2 mauritius 0 00 mexico 21 6 micronesia fed sts 0 0 moldova no data monaco 99 7 mongolia no data montenegro 0 06 morocco 0 7 mozambique 2 1 myanmar 0 5 namibia 1 7 nauru 0 0 nepal no data netherlands 26 9 new caledonia 96 3 new zealand 30 4 nicaragua 3 4 niger no data nigeria 0 0 north macedonia no data northern mariana islands 33 2 norway 9 8 oman 0 3 pakistan 0 8 palau 100 0 panama 26 8 papua new guinea 0 1 paraguay no data peru 8 0 philippines 1 7 poland 22 6 portugal 16 9 puerto rico 1 8 qatar 2 3 romania 23 1 russian federation 2 2 rwanda no data samoa 0 1 san marino no data são tomé and príncipe 0 0 saudi arabia 2 5 senegal 1 9 serbia no data seychelles 32 8 sierra leone 1 6 singapore 0 0 sint maarten dutch part 8 7 slovak republic no data slovenia 2 3 solomon islands 0 1 south africa 15 5 south sudan no data spain 12 8 sri lanka 0 01 st kitts and nevis 4 0 st lucia 0 2 st martin french part 96 4 st vincent and the grenadines 0 2 sudan 16 0 suriname 1 5 sweden 15 8 switzerland no data syrian arab republic 0 2 tajikistan no data tanzania 3 0 thailand 4 4 timor leste 1 4 togo 0 2 tonga 0 1 trinidad and tobago 0 0 tunisia 1 0 turkiye 1 8 turkmenistan 3 0 turks and caicos islands 0 1 tuvalu 0 0 uganda no data ukraine 9 2 united arab emirates 11 5 united kingdom 44 1 united states 19 0 uruguay 0 8 uzbekistan no data vanuatu 0 0 venezuela rb 4 4 viet nam 0 6 virgin islands u s 0 9 west bank and gaza no data yemen rep 0 5 zambia no data zimbabwe no data assessment edit the prickly pear cays are a marine protected area roughly six miles from road bay anguilla in the leeward islands of the caribbean managers and scientists use geographic information systems and remote sensing to map and analyze mpas noaa coastal services center compiled an inventory of gis based decision support tools for mpas the report focuses on gis tools with the highest utility for mpa processes 102 remote sensing uses advances in aerial photography image capture pop up archival satellite tags satellite imagery acoustic data and radar imagery mathematical models that seek to reflect the complexity of the natural setting may assist in planning harvesting strategies and sustaining fishing grounds 103 other techniques such as on site monitoring sensors crowdsensing via local people research and sampling endeavors autonomous ships and underwater robots uav could also be used and developed 104 additional citation s needed such data can then be used for assessing marine protection quality and extents in 2021 43 expert scientists published the first scientific framework version that via integration review clarifications and standardization enables coherent evaluation of levels of protection of marine protected areas and serve as a guide for improving planning and monitoring these such as in efforts towards the 30 protection goal adopted as part of the convention on biological diversity s post 2020 global biodiversity framework in december 2022 105 106 the global deal for nature 107 and the un s sustainable development goal 14 108 109 coral reefs edit coral reef systems have been in decline worldwide causes include overfishing pollution and ocean acidification as of 2013 30 of the world s reefs were severely damaged approximately 60 will be lost by 2030 without enhanced protection 110 marine reserves with no take zones are the most effective form of protection 111 only about 0 01 of the world s coral reefs are inside effective mpas 112 fish edit mpas can be an effective tool to maintain fish populations see refuge ecology the general concept is to create overpopulation within the mpa the fish expand into the surrounding areas to reduce crowding increasing the population of unprotected areas 113 this helps support local fisheries in the surrounding area while maintaining a healthy population within the mpa such mpas are most commonly used for coral reef ecosystems one example is at goat island bay in new zealand established in 1977 research gathered at goat bay documented the spillover effect spillover and larval export the drifting of millions of eggs and larvae beyond the reserve have become central concepts of marine conservation this positively impacted commercial fishermen in surrounding areas 114 another unexpected result of mpas is their impact on predatory marine species which in some conditions can increase in population when this occurs prey populations decrease one study showed that in 21 out of 39 cases trophic cascades caused a decrease in herbivores which led to an increase in the quantity of plant life this occurred in the malindi kisite and watamu marian national parks in kenya the leigh marine reserve in new zealand and brackett s landing conservation area in the us 115 success criteria edit both cbd and iucn have criteria for setting up and maintaining mpa networks which emphasize four factors 116 adequacy ensuring that the sites have the size shape and distribution to ensure the success of selected species representability protection for all of the local environment s biological processes resilience the resistance of the system to natural disaster such as a tsunami or flood connectivity maintaining population links across nearby mpas misconceptions edit misconceptions about mpas include the belief that all mpas are no take or no fishing areas less than 1 percent of us waters are no take areas mpa activities can include consumption fishing diving and other activities another misconception is that most mpas are federally managed instead mpas are managed under hundreds of laws and jurisdictions they can exist in state commonwealth territory and tribal waters another misconception is that a federal mandate dedicates a set percentage of ocean to mpas instead the mandate requires an evaluation of current mpas and creates a public resource on current mpas 117 criticism edit land use right edit some existing and proposed mpas have been criticized by indigenous populations and their supporters as impinging on land usage rights for example the proposed chagos protected area in the chagos islands is contested by chagossians deported from their homeland in 1965 by the british as part of the creation of the british indian ocean territory biot according to leaked diplomatic cables 118 the uk proposed that the biot become a marine reserve with the aim of preventing the former inhabitants from returning to their lands and to protect the joint uk us military base on diego garcia island climate change edit oceans are the primary carbon sink and have been greatly affected by global warming especially in recent years the ability of existing mpa designs to cope with changes in marine biodiversity due to ocean acidification sea level rise sea surface temperature increase oxygen reduction and other marine environmental issues remains questionable 119 120 121 122 123 despite differences in species adaptations warming has affected the habitats of some marine species such as corals to move from lower to higher latitudes 119 120 if mpa assumes a relatively stable ecological environment within the area as before it may become ineffective when the range of species distribution changes or becomes extensive 121 hence there s need to incorporate the climate change adaptation to the framework displaced fishing effort edit many fisheries scientists and managers have argued that no take mpas may not benefit biodiversity because they displace fishing effort outside the mpa 124 however work accounting for displaced fishing effort has suggested that even when the same total amount of fish are caught across the seascape mpas can lead to a net biodiversity gain if sensitive species are present 125 even when the bycatch species do not fully overlap the distribution of the fished species 126 however there are other potential undesirable impacts of displaced fishing effort such as increased cost to fishers 127 other critiques edit other critiques include their cost higher than that of passive management conflicts with human development goals inadequate scope to address factors such as climate change and invasive species 58 in scotland environmental groups have criticised the government for failing to enforce fishing rules around mpas 128 see also edit oceans portal ecology portal environment portal list of marine protected areas eco hotels as funding vehicles for marine protection initiatives hope spots marine areas rich in biodiversity important marine mammal area law of the sea marine park marine spatial planning special protection area specially protected areas of mediterranean importance united states national marine sanctuary references edit marine protection atlas mpatlas org retrieved 2022 11 15 1 2 what is a marine protected area oceanservice noaa gov retrieved 4 june 2019 in the u s mpas span a range of habitats including the open ocean coastal areas inter tidal zones estuaries and the great lakes administration us department of commerce national oceanic and atmospheric what is a marine protect oceanservice noaa gov retrieved 2018 02 05 cite web cs1 maint multiple names authors list link marine protected areas national ocean service national oceanic and atmospheric administration retrieved 2016 09 02 costello mark john 2024 03 27 evidence of economic benefits from marine protected areas scientia marina 88 1 e080 bibcode 2024scmar 88e 80c doi 10 3989 scimar 05417 080 issn 1886 8134 gilmour m e adams j block b a caselle j e friedlander a m game e t hazen e l holmes n d lafferty k d maxwell s m mccauley d j oleson e m pollock k shaffer s a wolff n h 2022 06 01 evaluation of mpa designs that protect highly mobile megafauna now and under climate change scenarios global ecology and conservation 35 e02070 bibcode 2022gecoc 3502070g doi 10 1016 j gecco 2022 e02070 issn 2351 9894 marcos concepción díaz david fietz katharina forcada aitor ford amanda garcía charton josé antonio goñi raquel lenfant philippe mallol sandra mouillot david pérez marcos maría puebla oscar manel stephanie pérez ruzafa angel 2021 06 01 reviewing the ecosystem services societal goods and benefits of marine protected areas frontiers in marine science 8 613819 bibcode 2021frmas 813819m doi 10 3389 fmars 2021 613819 hdl 10045 115426 issn 2296 7745 national monument in hawaii becomes world s largest marine protected area national oceanic and atmospheric administration www noaa gov 26 august 2016 retrieved 2021 09 06 obama s hawaii marine conservation area is just a drop in the ocean the guardian 2016 09 06 retrieved 2021 09 06 1 2 petterson michael g kim hyeon ju gill joel c 2021 conserve and sustainably use the oceans seas and marine resources in gill joel c smith martin eds geosciences and the sustainable development goals sustainable development goals series cham springer international publishing pp 339 367 doi 10 1007 978 3 030 38815 7_14 isbn 978 3 030 38814 0 s2cid 234955801 retrieved 2021 09 06 goal 14 sustainable development knowledge platform sustainabledevelopment un org archived from the original on 2019 04 12 retrieved 2019 04 13 how much of the ocean is really protected in 2020 pew org retrieved 2021 09 06 dead link towards networks of marine protected areas the mpa plan of action for iucn s world commission on protected areas pdf iucn 2008 11 04 archived from the original on 2012 10 08 retrieved 2012 06 07 1 2 when is a marine protected area really a marine protected area international union for conservation of nature 8 september 2012 retrieved 29 may 2019 marine protected areas why have them iucn 2010 02 01 archived from the original on 2012 03 19 retrieved 2012 06 07 nomination of existing marine protected areas to the national system of marine protected areas and updates to the list of national system marine protected areas federalregister gov 3 february...
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