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ailed analysis such as root cause impact or derived analysis such as business process extraction although efforts to represent language constructs can be never ending because of the number of languages the continuous evolution of software languages and the development of new languages the standard does allow for the use of extensions to support the broad language set as well as evolution kdm is compatible with uml bpmn rdf and other standards enabling migration into other environments and thus leverage system knowledge for efforts such as software system transformation and enterprise business layer analysis protocols edit protocols are sets of rules that describe message formats and how messages are exchanged the protocol state machine accordingly the problem of protocol reverse engineering can be partitioned into two subproblems message format and state machine reverse engineering the message formats have traditionally been reverse engineered by a tedious manual process which involved analysis of how protocol implementations process messages but recent research proposed a number of automatic solutions 26 27 28 typically the automatic approaches group observe messages into clusters by using various clustering analyses or they emulate the protocol implementation tracing the message processing there has been less work on reverse engineering of state machines of protocols in general the protocol state machines can be learned either through a process of offline learning which passively observes communication and attempts to build the most general state machine accepting all observed sequences of messages and online learning which allows interactive generation of probing sequences of messages and listening to responses to those probing sequences in general offline learning of small state machines is known to be np complete 29 but online learning can be done in polynomial time 30 an automatic offline approach has been demonstrated by comparetti et al 28 and an online approach by cho et al 31 other components of typical protocols like encryption and hash functions can be reverse engineered automatically as well typically the automatic approaches trace the execution of protocol implementations and try to detect buffers in memory holding unencrypted packets 32 integrated circuits smart cards edit reverse engineering is an invasive and destructive form of analyzing a smart card the attacker uses chemicals to etch away layer after layer of the smart card and takes pictures with a scanning electron microscope sem that technique can reveal the complete hardware and software part of the smart card the major problem for the attacker is to bring everything into the right order to find out how everything works the makers of the card try to hide keys and operations by mixing up memory positions such as by bus scrambling 33 34 in some cases it is even possible to attach a probe to measure voltages while the smart card is still operational the makers of the card employ sensors to detect and prevent that attack 35 that attack is not very common because it requires both a large investment in effort and special equipment that is generally available only to large chip manufacturers furthermore the payoff from this attack is low since other security techniques are often used such as shadow accounts it is still uncertain whether attacks against chip and pin cards to replicate encryption data and then to crack pins would provide a cost effective attack on multifactor authentication full reverse engineering proceeds in several major steps the first step after images have been taken with a sem is stitching the images together which is necessary because each layer cannot be captured by a single shot a sem needs to sweep across the area of the circuit and take several hundred images to cover the entire layer image stitching takes as input several hundred pictures and outputs a single properly overlapped picture of the complete layer next the stitched layers need to be aligned because the sample after etching cannot be put into the exact same position relative to the sem each time therefore the stitched versions will not overlap in the correct fashion as on the real circuit usually three corresponding points are selected and a transformation applied on the basis of that to extract the circuit structure the aligned stitched images need to be segmented which highlights the important circuitry and separates it from the uninteresting background and insulating materials finally the wires can be traced from one layer to the next and the netlist of the circuit which contains all of the circuit s information can be reconstructed military applications edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed july 2014 learn how and when to remove this message reverse engineering is often used by people to copy other nations technologies devices or information that have been obtained by regular troops in the fields or by intelligence operations it was often used during the second world war and the cold war following are some well known examples from the second world war and afterward jerry can british and american forces in ww2 noticed that the germans had gasoline cans with an excellent design they reverse engineered copies of those cans which were popularly known as jerry cans nakajima g5n in 1939 the u s douglas aircraft company sold its dc 4e airliner prototype to imperial japanese airways which was secretly acting as a front for the imperial japanese navy which wanted a long range strategic bomber but had been hindered by the japanese aircraft industry s inexperience with heavy long range aircraft the dc 4e was transferred to the nakajima aircraft company and dismantled for study as a cover story the japanese press reported that it had crashed in tokyo bay 36 37 the wings engines and landing gear of the g5n were copied directly from the dc 4e 38 panzerschreck the germans captured an american bazooka during the second world war and reverse engineered it to create the larger panzerschreck tupolev tu 4 in 1944 three american b 29 bombers on missions over japan were forced to land in the soviet union the soviets who did not have a similar strategic bomber decided to copy the b 29 within three years they had developed the tu 4 a nearly perfect copy 39 scr 584 radar copied by the soviet union after the second world war it is known for a few modifications сцр 584 бинокль д v 2 rocket technical documents for the v 2 and related technologies were captured by the western allies at the end of the war the americans focused their reverse engineering efforts via operation paperclip which led to the development of the pgm 11 redstone rocket 40 the soviets used captured german engineers to reproduce technical documents and plans and worked from captured hardware to make their clone of the rocket the r 1 thus began the postwar soviet rocket program which led to the r 7 and the beginning of the space race k 13 r 3s missile nato reporting name aa 2 atoll a soviet reverse engineered copy of the aim 9 sidewinder was made possible after a taiwanese rocaf aim 9b hit a chinese pla mig 17 without exploding in september 1958 41 the missile became lodged within the airframe and the pilot returned to base with what soviet scientists would describe as a university course in missile development toophan missile in may 1975 negotiations between iran and hughes missile systems on co production of the bgm 71 tow and maverick missiles stalled over disagreements in the pricing structure the subsequent 1979 revolution ending all plans for such co production iran was later successful in reverse engineering the missile and now produces its own copy the toophan china has reverse engineered many examples of western and russian hardware from fighter aircraft to missiles and hmmwv cars such as the mig 15 17 19 21 which became the j 2 5 6 7 and the su 33 which became the j 15 42 during the second world war polish and british cryptographers studied captured german enigma message encryption machines for weaknesses their operation was then simulated on electromechanical devices bombes which tried all the possible scrambler settings of the enigma machines that helped the breaking of coded messages that had been sent by the germans also during the second world war british scientists analyzed and defeated a series of increasingly sophisticated radio navigation systems used by the luftwaffe to perform guided bombing missions at night the british countermeasures to the system were so effective that in some cases german aircraft were led by signals to land at raf bases since they believed that they had returned to german territory gene networks edit reverse engineering concepts have been applied to biology as well specifically to the task of understanding the structure and function of gene regulatory networks they regulate almost every aspect of biological behavior and allow cells to carry out physiological processes and responses to perturbations understanding the structure and the dynamic behavior of gene networks is therefore one of the paramount challenges of systems biology with immediate practical repercussions in several applications that are beyond basic research 43 there are several methods for reverse engineering gene regulatory networks by using molecular biology and data science methods they have been generally divided into six classes 44 the six classes of gene network inference methods according to 44 coexpression methods are based on the notion that if two genes exhibit a similar expression profile they may be related although no causation can be simply inferred from coexpression sequence motif methods analyze gene promoters to find specific transcription factor binding domains if a transcription factor is predicted to bind a promoter of a specific gene a regulatory connection can be hypothesized chromatin immunoprecipitation chip methods investigate the genome wide profile of dna binding of chosen transcription factors to infer their downstream gene networks orthology methods transfer gene network knowledge from one species to another literature methods implement text mining and manual research to identify putative or experimentally proven gene network connections transcriptional complexes methods leverage information on protein protein interactions between transcription factors thus extending the concept of gene networks to include transcriptional regulatory complexes often gene network reliability is tested by genetic perturbation experiments followed by dynamic modelling based on the principle that removing one network node has predictable effects on the functioning of the remaining nodes of the network 45 applications of the reverse engineering of gene networks range from understanding mechanisms of plant physiology 46 to the highlighting of new targets for anticancer therapy 47 overlap with patent law edit reverse engineering applies primarily to gaining understanding of a process or artifact in which the manner of its construction use or internal processes has not been made clear by its creator patented items do not of themselves have to be reverse engineered to be studied for the essence of a patent is that inventors provide a detailed public disclosure themselves and in return receive legal protection of the invention that is involved however an item produced under one or more patents could also include other technology that is not patented and not disclosed indeed one common motivation of reverse engineering is to determine whether a competitor s product contains patent infringement or copyright infringement legality edit united states edit in the united states even if an artifact or process is protected by trade secrets reverse engineering the artifact or process is often lawful if it has been legitimately obtained 48 legal analysis has shown that reverse engineering may qualify as fair use when the intent is to study how a system functions or conduct security research assuming the copyright property is not redistributed 49 court rulings such as sega enterprises ltd v accolade inc have further clarified that reverse engineering to gain access to unprotected functional elements of software can be lawful under u s copyright doctrine 50 reverse engineering of computer software often falls under both contract law as a breach of contract as well as any other relevant laws that is because most end user license agreements specifically prohibit it and us courts have ruled that if such terms are present they override the copyright law that expressly permits it see bowers v baystate technologies 51 52 according to section 103 f of the digital millennium copyright act 17 u s c 1201 f a person in legal possession of a program may reverse engineer and circumvent its protection if that is necessary to achieve interoperability a term that broadly covers other devices and programs that can interact with it make use of it and to use and transfer data to and from it in useful ways a limited exemption exists that allows the knowledge thus gained to be shared and used for interoperability purposes a european union edit eu directive 2009 24 on the legal protection of computer programs which superseded an earlier 1991 directive 53 governs reverse engineering in countries of the european union 54 b see also edit ai assisted reverse engineering branch of computer science antikythera mechanism ancient greek analogue astronomical computer backward induction process of reasoning backwards in sequence benchmarking comparing business metrics in an industry bus analyzer chonda type of honda engine pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets clone computing duplicate of a system coordinate measuring machine cmm device for measuring the geometry of objects code morphing approach used in obfuscating software connectix virtual game station counterfeiting making a copy or imitation which is represented as the original pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets cryptanalysis study of analyzing information systems in order to discover their hidden aspects decompile program translating executable to source code pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets deformulation set of analytical procedures in chemistry digital millennium copyright act dmca 1998 united states copyright law disassembler computer program to translate machine language into assembly language dongle small piece of computer hardware forensic engineering investigation of failures associated with legal intervention industrial ct scanning computer aided tomographic process pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets interactive disassembler software reverse engineering tool knowledge discovery metamodel specification of object management group laser scanner scanning of an object or environment to c...
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