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hols to carboxylic acids via aldehydes and aldehyde hydrates almost all industrial scale oxidations use oxygen or air as the oxidant 2 through a variety of mechanisms the removal of a hydride equivalent converts a primary or secondary alcohol to an aldehyde or ketone respectively the oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde which is transformed via an aldehyde hydrate gem diol r ch oh 2 by reaction with water thus the oxidation of a primary alcohol at the aldehyde level without further oxidation to the carboxylic acid is possible by performing the reaction in absence of water so that no aldehyde hydrate can be formed oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes and ketones to aldehydes and ketones edit in industry edit the largest operations involve the oxidation of methanol and ethanol to formaldehyde and acetaldehyde which are produced on million ton scale annually both processes use o 2 as the oxidant methanol oxidation employs a molybdenum oxide based catalyst other large scale aldehydes and ketones are produced by autoxidation of hydrocarbons benzaldehyde from toluene acrolein from propylene acetone from cumene cyclohexanone from cyclohexanol 2 laboratory edit in teaching laboratories and small scale operations many reagents have been developed for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones and primary alcohols to aldehydes allylic and benzylic alcohols are especially prone to oxidation aldehydes are susceptible to over oxidation to carboxylic acids chromium vi reagents edit chromium vi reagents are commonly used for these oxidations one family of cr vi reagents employs the complex cro 3 pyridine 2 3 sarett s reagent a solution of cro 3 pyridine 2 in pyridine it was popularized for selective oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols to carbonyl compounds collins reagent is a solution of the same cro 3 pyridine 2 but in dichloromethane the ratcliffe variant of collins reagent relates to details of the preparation of this solution i e the addition of chromium trioxide to a solution of pyridine in methylene chloride 4 a second family of cr vi reagents are salts featuring the pyridinium cation c 5 h 5 nh pyridinium dichromate pdc is the pyridium salt of dichromate cr 2 o 7 2 pyridinium chlorochromate pcc is the pyridinium salt of cro 3 cl these salts are less reactive more easily handled and more selective than collins reagent in oxidations of alcohols the above reagents represent improvements over the older jones reagent a solution of chromium trioxide in aqueous sulfuric acid dess martin and related oxidations edit the dess martin periodinane is a mild oxidant for the conversion of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones 5 the reaction is performed under standard conditions at room temperature most often in dichloromethane the reaction takes between half an hour and two hours to complete the product is then separated from the spent periodinane 6 many iodosyl based oxidants have been developed e g ibx swern oxidation edit swern oxidation uses oxalyl chloride dimethylsulfoxide and an organic base such as triethylamine the by products are dimethyl sulfide me 2 s carbon monoxide co carbon dioxide co 2 and when triethylamine is used as base triethylammonium chloride c 6 h 15 nhcl the related n tert butylbenzenesulfinimidoyl chloride combines both the sulfur iv the base and the activating lewis acid in one molecule oppenauer oxidation edit main article oppenauer oxidation this seldom used method interconverts alcohols and carbonyls niche methods edit ley oxidation uses nmo as the stoichiometric oxidant with tetrapropylammonium perruthenate as a catalyst fétizon oxidation also a seldom used method uses silver carbonate supported on celite this reagent operates through single electron oxidation by the silver cations another method is the oxoammonium catalyzed oxidation tempo exhibits a strong ph dependent selectivity for either primary or secondary alcohols but the effect is primarily steric and other n oxides behave differently additionally sodium hypochlorite or household bleach in acetone has been reported for efficient conversion of secondary alcohols in the presence of primary alcohols stevens oxidation 7 soluble transition metal complexes catalyze the oxidation of alcohols by presence of dioxygen or another terminal oxidant 8 oxidation of diols edit oxidative cleavage of carbon carbon bond in 1 2 diols the largest scale oxidation of 1 2 diols gives glyoxal from ethylene glycol the conversion uses air or sometimes nitric acid 2 in the laboratory vicinal diols suffer oxidative breakage at a carbon carbon bond with some oxidants such as sodium periodate naio 4 diacetoxyiodo benzene phi oac 2 9 or lead tetraacetate pb oac 4 resulting in generation of two carbonyl groups the reaction is also known as glycol cleavage to carboxylic acids edit in industry edit the oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using a variety of reagents but o 2 air and nitric acid dominate as the oxidants on a commercial scale large scale oxidations of this type are used for the conversion of cyclohexanol alone or as a mixture with cyclohexanone to adipic acid similarly cyclododecanol is converted to the 12 carbon dicarboxylic acid 3 5 5 trimethylcyclohexanol is similarly oxidized to trimethyladipic acid 2 many specialty reagents have been developed for laboratory scale oxidations of alcohols to carboxylic acids potassium permanganate edit potassium permanganate kmno 4 oxidizes primary alcohols to carboxylic acids very efficiently this reaction which was first described in detail by fournier 10 11 is typically carried out by adding kmno 4 to a solution or suspension of the alcohol in an alkaline aqueous solution for the reaction to proceed efficiently the alcohol must be at least partially dissolved in the aqueous solution this can be facilitated by the addition of an organic co solvent such as dioxane pyridine acetone or t buoh kmno 4 reacts with many functional groups such as secondary alcohols 1 2 diols aldehydes alkenes oximes sulfides and thiols and carbon carbon double bonds thus selectivity is an issue ciufolini and swaminathan 12 oxidized a primary alcohol to carboxylic acid with kmno 4 in aqueous naoh during the obtention of a rare amino acid derivative needed for the preparation of antibiotics isolated from actinomadura luzonensis a microorganism found in a soil sample collected in luzon island in the philippines jones oxidation edit main article jones oxidation the so called jones reagent prepared from chromium trioxide cro 3 and aqueous sulfuric acid oxidizes alcohols to a carboxylic acid the protocol frequently affords substantial amounts of esters 13 problems are the toxicity and environmental unfriendliness of the reagent catalytic variant involving treatment with excess of periodic acid h 5 io 6 have been described 14 crimmins and debaillie 15 two step oxidation of alcohols to acids via isolated aldehydes edit as a lot of the aforementioned conditions for the oxidations of primary alcohols to acids are harsh and not compatible with common protection groups organic chemists often use a two step procedure for the oxidation to acids the alcohol is oxidized to an aldehyde using one of the many procedures above this sequence is often used in natural product synthesis as in their synthesis of platencin 16 niche methods and reagents edit ruthenium tetroxide is an aggressive seldom used agent that allows mild reaction conditions heyns oxidation 17 the use of chlorites as terminal oxidants in conjunction with both hypochlorites and tempo gives carboxylic acids without chlorination side products 18 the reaction is usually carried out in two steps in the same pot partial oxidation is effected with tempo and hypochlorite then chlorite is added to complete the oxidation only primary alcohol oxidation is observed in conjunction with sharpless dihydroxylation this method can be used to generate enantiopure α hydroxy acids 19 the pinnick oxidation uses sodium chlorite 20 references edit burton george et al 2000 salters advanced chemistry chemical 2nd ed heinemann isbn 0 435 63120 9 1 2 3 4 teles j henrique hermans ive franz gerhard sheldon roger a 2015 oxidation ullmann s encyclopedia of industrial chemistry pp 1 103 doi 10 1002 14356007 a18_261 pub2 isbn 978 3 527 30385 4 chromium based reagents oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes and ketones basic reactions in organic synthesis 2006 pp 1 95 doi 10 1007 0 387 25725 x_1 isbn 0 387 23607 4 j c collins w w hess 1972 aldehydes from primary alcohols by oxidation with chromium trioxide heptanal organic syntheses 52 5 doi 10 15227 orgsyn 052 0005 dess d b martin j c j am chem soc 1991 113 7277 87 j s yadav et al recyclable 2nd generation ionic liquids as green solvents for the oxidation of alcohols with hypervalent iodine reagents tetrahedron 2004 60 2131 35 stevens r chapman kt weller hn 1980 convenient and inexpensive procedure for oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones journal of organic chemistry 45 10 2030 2032 doi 10 1021 jo01298a066 parmeggiani camilla cardona francesca 2012 01 03 transition metal based catalysts in the aerobic oxidation of alcohols green chemistry 14 3 547 564 doi 10 1039 c2gc16344f issn 1463 9270 nicolaou kc adsool va hale cr april 2010 an expedient procedure for the oxidative cleavage of olefinic bonds with phi oac 2 nmo and catalytic oso4 organic letters 12 7 1552 5 doi 10 1021 ol100290a pmc 2848477 pmid 20192259 fournier h m 1907 transformation des alcools primaires saturès en acides monobasiques correspondants c r acad sci 331 fournier h m 20 july 1909 sur la préparation des acides gras et de leurs anhydres bull soc chim fr 920 ciufolini m a swaminathan s 1989 synthesis of a model depsipeptide segment of luzopeptins bbm 928 potent antitumor and antiretroviral antibiotics tetrahedron lett 30 23 3027 doi 10 1016 s0040 4039 00 99393 6 chromium based reagents oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes and ketones basic reactions in organic synthesis 2006 pp 1 95 doi 10 1007 0 387 25725 x_1 isbn 0 387 23607 4 song z j zhao m desmond r devine p tschaen d m tillyer r frey l heid r xu f foster b li j reamer r volante r grabowski e j j dolling u h reider p j 1999 practical asymmetric synthesis of an endothelin receptor antagonist j org chem 64 26 9658 doi 10 1021 jo991292t crimmins m t debaillie a c 2006 enantioselective total synthesis of bistramide a j am chem soc 128 15 4936 7 doi 10 1021 ja057686l pmc 2546575 pmid 16608311 nicolaou k c scott tria g edmonds d j 2008 total synthesis of platencin angew chem 120 9 1804 doi 10 1002 ange 200800066 marcos fernández gabriel tojo 2006 oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids a guide to current common practice basic reactions in organic synthesis berlin springer isbn 0 387 35431 x song z j zhao m desmond r devine p tschaen d m tillyer r frey l heid r xu f foster b li j reamer r volante r grabowski e j j dolling u h reider p j okada s kato y mano e j org chem 1999 64 9658 sharpless k b amberg w bennani y l crispino g a hartung j jeong k s kwong h l morikawa k wang z m xu d zhang x l j org chem 1992 57 2768 bal b s childers jr w e pinnick h w 1981 oxidation of α β unsaturated aldehydes tetrahedron abstract 37 11 2091 doi 10 1016 s0040 4020 01 97963 3 v t e alcohols by consumption alcohols found in alcoholic drinks 1 propanol 2 methyl 1 butanol ethanol isoamyl alcohol isobutanol phenethyl alcohol tert amyl alcohol tert butyl alcohol tryptophol medical alcohol ethchlorvynol methylpentynol methanol poisoning ethanol toxic alcohols isopropyl alcohol methanol primary alcohols 1 methanol 4 methylcyclohexanemethanol aminomethanol cyclohexylmethanol methoxymethanol methylazoxymethanol trifluoromethanol ethanol 1 aminoethanol 2 2 2 trichloroethanol 2 2 2 trifluoroethanol 2 2 ethoxyethoxy ethanol 2 2 methoxyethoxy ethanol 2 2 methoxyethoxy ethanol 2 butoxyethanol 2 chloroethanol 2 ethoxyethanol 2 fluoroethanol 2 mercaptoethanol 2 methoxyethanol aminoethylethanolamine diethylethanolamine dimethylethanolamine ethanol ethanolamine n n diisopropylaminoethanol n methylethanolamine phenoxyethanol tribromoethanol butanol 2 methyl 1 butanol isobutanol n butanol straight chain saturated c 1 c 9 methanol ethanol 1 propanol 1 butanol 1 pentanol 1 hexanol 1 heptanol 1 octanol capryl 1 nonanol pelargonic straight chain saturated c 10 c 19 1 decanol capric 1 undecanol hendecyl 1 dodecanol lauryl 1 tridecanol 1 tetradecanol myristyl 1 pentadecanol 1 hexadecanol cetyl palmityl 1 heptadecanol 1 octadecanol stearyl 1 nonadecanol straight chain saturated c 20 c 29 1 icosanol arachidyl 1 heneicosanol 1 docosanol behenyl 1 tricosanol 1 tetracosanol lignoceryl 1 pentacosanol 1 hexacosanol ceryl 1 heptacosanol 1 octacosanol cluytyl montanyl 1 nonacosanol straight chain saturated c 30 c 39 1 triacontanol melissyl myricyl 1 hentriacontanol 1 dotriacontanol lacceryl 1 tritriacontanol 1 tetratriacontanol geddyl 1 pentatriacontanol 1 hexatriacontanol 1 heptatriacontanol 1 octatriacontanol 1 nonatriacontanol straight chain saturated c 40 c 49 1 tetracontanol 1 hentetracontanol 1 dotetracontanol 1 tritetracontanol 1 tetratetracontanol 1 pentatetracontanol 1 hexatetracontanol 1 heptatetracontanol 1 octatetracontanol 1 nonatetracontanol 2 ethylhexanol allyl alcohol anisyl alcohol benzyl alcohol cinnamyl alcohol crotyl alcohol furfuryl alcohol isoamyl alcohol neopentyl alcohol nicotinyl alcohol perillyl alcohol phenethyl alcohol prenol propargyl alcohol salicyl alcohol tryptophol vanillyl alcohol veratrole alcohol secondary alcohols 2 1 phenylethanol 2 butanol 2 deoxyerythritol 2 heptanol 3 heptanol 2 hexanol 3 hexanol 3 methyl 2 butanol 2 nonanol 2 octanol 2 pentanol 3 pentanol cyclohexanol cyclopentanol cyclopropanol diphenylmethanol isopropanol pinacolyl alcohol pirkle s alcohol propylene glycol methyl ether tertiary alcohols 3 2 methyl 2 pentanol 2 methylheptan 2 ol 2 methylhexan 2 ol 3 methyl 3 pentanol 3 methyloctan 3 ol diacetone alcohol ethchlorvynol methylpentynol nonafluoro tert butyl alcohol tert amyl alcohol tert butyl alcohol triphenylethanol triphenylmethanol hydric alcohols monohydric alcohols methanol c 1 ethanol c 2 isopropanol c 3 1 butanol c 4 1 pentanol c 5 cetyl alcohol c 16 dihydric alcohols ethylene glycol propylene glycol trihydric alcohols glycerol polyhydric alcohols sugar alcohols pentaerythritol ethylene glycol c 2 glycerol propylene glycol c 3 erythritol threitol c 4 xylitol c 5 mannitol sorbitol c 6 volemitol c 7 amyl alcohols 2 2 dimethylpropan 1 ol 2 methylbutan 1 ol 2 methylbutan 2 ol 3 methylbutan 1 ol 3 methylbutan 2 ol pentan 1 ol pentan 2 ol pentan 3 ol aromatic alcohols benzyl alcohol 2 4 dichlorobenzyl alcohol 3 nitrobenzyl alcohol saturated fatty alcohols cetostearyl alcohol decanol lauryl alcohol myristyl alcohol nonanol octanol tridecanol undecanol branched and unsaturated fatty alcohols 3 methyl 3 pentanol erucyl alcohol linolenyl alcohol linoleyl alcohol...
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