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ple working in high tech environments but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e mail and the world wide web combined with the development of cheap fast networking technologies like ethernet and adsl saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous in fact the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally a very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the internet to communicate and receive information wireless networking often utilizing mobile phone networks has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments unconventional computers main article human computer see also harvard computers a computer does not need to be electronic nor even have a processor nor ram nor even a hard disk while popular usage of the word computer is synonymous with a personal electronic computer l the modern definition of a computer is literally a device that computes especially a programmable usually electronic machine that performs high speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles stores correlates or otherwise processes information 105 any device which processes information qualifies as a computer especially if the processing is purposeful citation needed future there is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology such as optical computers dna computers neural computers and quantum computers most computers are universal and are able to calculate any computable function and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed however different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring very quickly computer architecture paradigms there are many types of computer architectures quantum computer vs chemical computer scalar processor vs vector processor non uniform memory access numa computers register machine vs stack machine harvard architecture vs von neumann architecture cellular architecture of all these abstract machines a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing 106 logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms the ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile distinguishing them from calculators the church turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility any computer with a minimum capability being turing complete is in principle capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform therefore any type of computer netbook supercomputer cellular automaton etc is able to perform the same computational tasks given enough time and storage capacity artificial intelligence a computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to without regard to efficiency alternative solutions possible shortcuts or possible errors in the code computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories rule based systems and pattern recognition systems rule based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop pattern based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions examples of pattern based systems include voice recognition font recognition translation and the emerging field of on line marketing professions and organizations as the use of computers has spread throughout society there are an increasing number of careers involving computers computer related professions hardware related electrical engineering electronic engineering computer engineering telecommunications engineering optical engineering nanoengineering software related computer science computer engineering desktop publishing human computer interaction information technology information systems computational science software engineering video game industry web design the need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature organizations standards groups ansi iec ieee ietf iso w3c professional societies acm ais iet ifip bcs free open source software groups free software foundation mozilla foundation apache software foundation see also glossary of computers computability theory computer security glossary of computer hardware terms history of computer science list of computer term etymologies list of fictional computers list of pioneers in computer science pulse computation top500 list of most powerful computers unconventional computing notes according to schmandt besserat 1981 these clay containers contained tokens the total of which were the count of objects being transferred the containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book in order to avoid breaking open the containers first clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers for the count the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks finally the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals these numerals were finally formalized as numbers eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count schmandt besserat 1999 estimates it took 4000 years the intel 4004 1971 die was 12 mm 2 composed of 2300 transistors by comparison the pentium pro was 306 mm 2 composed of 5 5 million transistors 86 most major 64 bit instruction set architectures are extensions of earlier designs all of the architectures listed in this table except for alpha existed in 32 bit forms before their 64 bit incarnations were introduced the control unit s role in interpreting instructions has varied somewhat in the past although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers this is not always the case some computers have instructions that are partially interpreted by the control unit with further interpretation performed by another device for example edvac one of the earliest stored program computers used a central control unit that interpreted only four instructions all of the arithmetic related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there instructions often occupy more than one memory address therefore the program counter usually increases by the number of memory locations required to store one instruction flash memory also may only be rewritten a limited number of times before wearing out making it less useful for heavy random access usage 93 however it is also very common to construct supercomputers out of many pieces of cheap commodity hardware usually individual computers connected by networks these so called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs while custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years 98 even some later computers were commonly programmed directly in machine code some minicomputers like the dec pdp 8 could be programmed directly from a panel of switches however this method was usually used only as part of the booting process most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non volatile memory however there is sometimes some form of machine language compatibility between different computers an x86 64 compatible microprocessor like the amd athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an intel core 2 microprocessor can as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the intel pentiums and intel 80486 this contrasts with very early commercial computers which were often one of a kind and totally incompatible with other computers high level languages are also often interpreted rather than compiled interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly while running by another program called an interpreter it is not universally true that bugs are solely due to programmer oversight computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations for instance the pentium fdiv bug caused some intel microprocessors in the early 1990s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations this was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices according to the shorter oxford english dictionary 6th ed 2007 the word computer dates back to the mid 17th century when it referred to a person who makes calculations specifically 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