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judaism 42 following moses maimonides analysis of islam medieval jewish rabbis affirmed that islam as an entire religion despite its perceived errors and cruelties towards the jews could still be considered as a noahide faith the 13th 14th century catalan rabbi menachem ben solomon ha meiri fully extended much the same status to christianity itself 41 the talmud has accounts illustrating how far god s lovingkindness and mercies might extend giving ultimate salvation even to persons who had led notoriously evil lives some said that if those persons had done only one truly selfless kind and good deed in their entire lives god would accept them for the sake of that precious act into paradise either immediately at death if their death was the result of an extraordinarily generous self sacrificing or courageous deed or after they had atoned for their sins in purgatory so it is evident that full observance of the noahide covenant itself was not always obligatory for salvation after all even if it remained the chief guide to lives of spiritual loftiness and nobility 62 this led the 18th century italian jewish kabbalist and rabbi moshe chaim luzzatto to emphasize and explain at length that god would end up accepting all humanity good and evil alike into the world to come olam ha ba the evil ones however would of course need to purify themselves in purgatory first but there will be no eternal punishment for them 63 yosef albo writes in sefer ha ikkarim that noachian and mosaic law differed in detail but agreed generally mosaic law existed in israel while the other nations had noachian law which came down to geographical and national ancestral diversity the other nations attained happiness via noachian law due to its divinity but not as much as israelites via the torah he posits that there could be two divine laws existing simultaneously among different nations through which people can attain different levels of happiness according to albo this difference in the laws can not concern fundamental or derivative principles therefore the examination of the law itself is always of the same kind but the examination relating to the messenger may undergo change at all events the verification must be direct though the verification of one religion may be different from that of another 64 during the 1860s in western europe a resurgence of noahide faith as the universal moral religion for gentiles non jews was developed by the 19th century italian jewish kabbalist and rabbi elijah benamozegh 11 65 66 between the years 1920s 1930s french writer aimé pallière fr adopted the seven laws of noah at the suggestion of his teacher elijah benamozegh afterwards pallière spread benamozegh s doctrine in europe and never formally converted to judaism 11 67 modern historians argue that benamozegh s role in the debate on jewish universalism in the history of jewish philosophy was focused on the noahide laws for gentiles as the means subservient to the shift of jewish ethics from particularism to universalism although the arguments that he used to support his universalistic viewpoint were neither original nor unheard in the history of this debate 65 according to clémence boulouque carl and bernice witten associate professor of jewish and israel studies at columbia university in the city of new york benamozegh ignored the ethnocentric biases contained in the noahide laws whereas some contemporary right wing jewish political movements have embraced them 65 the encyclopedia talmudit edited by the 20th century belarusian hasidic rabbi shlomo yosef zevin states that after the giving of the torah the jewish people were no longer included in the category of the sons of noah maimonides mishneh torah hilkhot melakhim 9 1 indicates that the seven commandments are also part of the torah and the babylonian talmud sanhedrin 59a see also tosafot ad loc states that jews are obligated in all things that gentiles are obligated in albeit with some differences in the details 10 according to the encyclopedia talmudit most medieval jewish authorities considered that all the seven commandments were given to adam although maimonides mishneh torah hilkhot melakhim 9 1 considered the dietary law to have been given to noah 10 menachem mendel schneerson the lubavitcher rebbe published and spoke about the seven laws of noah many times 68 according to schneerson s view based on a detailed reading of maimonides tractate hilkhot melakhim in the mishneh torah the talmud and the hebrew bible the seven commandments originally given to noah were given yet again through moses at sinai and it is exclusively through the giving of the torah that the seven commandments derive their current force 69 what has changed with the giving of the torah is that now it is the duty of the jewish people to bring the rest of the world to fulfill the seven laws of noah 70 academic and secular edit according to michael s kogan professor of philosophy and religious studies at montclair state university the seven laws of noah are not explicitly mentioned in the torah but were exegetically extrapolated from the book of genesis by 2nd century rabbis 71 which wrote them down in the tosefta 71 according to adam j silverstein professor of middle eastern studies and islamic studies at the hebrew university of jerusalem jewish theologians started to rethink the relevance and applicability of the seven laws of noah during the middle ages primarily due to the precarious living conditions of the jewish people under the medieval christian kingdoms and the islamic world see jewish christian relations and jewish islamic relations since both christians and muslims recognize the patriarch abraham as the unifying figure of the abrahamic tradition alongside the monotheistic conception of god 72 silverstein states that jewish theology came to include concepts and frameworks that would permit certain types of non jews to be recognized as righteous and deserving of life in the hereafter due to the noachide law he sees there being two torahs one for jews the other for the gentile children of noah whilst theoretically the noachide law should be universal its prohibitions against blasphemy and idolatry mean that in practice it only really applied to non idolatrous theists therefore jews normally considered christians and or muslims when discussing this concept 72 david novak professor of jewish theology and ethics at the university of toronto presents a range of theories regarding the sources from which the seven laws of noah originated including the hebrew bible itself hittite laws the maccabean period and the roman period 73 regarding the modern noahide movement he denounced it by stating that if jews are telling gentiles what to do it s a form of imperialism 74 judaism edit talmud edit according to the babylonian talmud the seven laws of noah laws apply to all of humanity 3 10 32 in judaism the term b nei noach hebrew בני נח sons of noah 19 refers to all mankind 10 the talmud also states righteous people of all nations have a share in the world to come 75 any non jew who lives according to these laws is regarded as one of the righteous among the gentiles 5 7 11 17 18 19 32 according to the talmud the noahide covenant was given first to adam and subsequently to noah 2 3 10 32 six of the seven laws were exegetically derived from passages in the book of genesis 2 7 10 32 with the seventh being the establishment of courts of justice 2 7 10 32 the talmudic sages expanded the concept of universal morality within the noahide laws and added several other laws beyond the seven listed in the talmud and tosefta which are attributed to different rabbis 2 3 7 10 such as prohibitions against committing incest cruelty to animals pairing animals of different species grafting trees of different kinds castration emasculation homosexuality pederasty and sorcery among others 78 with some of the sages such as ulla going so far as to make a list of 30 laws 2 3 7 79 the talmud expands the scope of the seven laws to cover about 100 of the 613 mitzvot 80 punishment edit main article capital and corporal punishment in judaism in practice jewish law makes it very difficult to apply the jewish death penalty 81 no record exists of a gentile having been put to death for violating the seven noahide laws 73 some of the categories of capital punishment recorded in the talmud are recorded as having never been carried out it is thought that the rabbis included discussion of them in anticipation of the coming messianic age 81 also a noahide is free from punishment if he commits a sin unwittingly 82 according sanhedrin 56a for noahides convicted of a capital crime the only sanctioned method of execution is decapitation 83 considered one of the lightest capital punishments 84 other sources state that the execution is to be by stoning if he has intercourse with a jewish betrothed woman or by strangulation if the jewish woman has completed the marriage ceremonies but had not yet consummated the marriage in jewish law the only form of blasphemy which is punishable by death is blaspheming the ineffable name leviticus 24 16 85 some talmudic rabbis held that only those offences for which a jew would be executed are forbidden to gentiles 86 the talmudic rabbis discuss which offences and sub offences are capital offences and which are merely forbidden 87 maimonides states that a non jew under jewish authority who does not accept the seven noahide laws is to be executed as god compelled the world to follow these laws 88 89 however a non jew who does not desire to convert to judaism should not be forced to 90 for the other prohibitions such as the grafting of trees and bestiality he holds that the sons of noah are not to be executed 91 maimonides adds a universalism lacking from earlier jewish sources 80 18 the talmud differs from maimonides in that it considers the seven laws enforceable by jewish authorities on non jews living within a jewish nation 80 18 nahmanides disagrees with maimonides reasoning he limits the obligation of enforcing the seven laws to non jewish authorities thus taking the matter out of jewish hands the tosafot seems to agree with nahmanides reasoning 92 39 according to some opinions punishment is the same whether the individual transgresses with knowledge of the law or is ignorant of the law 93 some authorities debate whether non jewish societies may decide to modify the noahide laws of evidence for example by requiring more witnesses before punishment or by permitting circumstantial evidence if they consider that to be more just 94 whilst jewish law requires two witnesses noachide law as recorded by rambam hilkhot melakhim 9 14 can accept the testimony of a single eyewitness as sufficient for use of the death penalty whilst a confession of guilt is not admissible as evidence before a jewish court it is a matter of considerable dispute as to whether or not it constitutes sufficient grounds for conviction in noachide courts 95 there is also some debate as to whether the ideal punishment for violation of these laws is the death penalty or if it is up to the court s discretion to decide which punishment is most fitting while a simple reading of the talmud might suggest that the ideal punishment is the death penalty a number of prominent commentators including rav yosef eliyahu henkin have argued that it is up to the courts to decide 96 subdivisions edit various rabbinic sources have different positions on the way the seven laws are to be subdivided in categories maimonides in his mishneh torah included the grafting of trees 91 like the talmud he interpreted the prohibition against homicide as including a prohibition against abortion 97 98 david ben solomon ibn abi zimra a commentator on maimonides expressed surprise that he left out castration and sorcery which were also listed in the talmud 99 maimonides also indicates that the descendants of ishmael and keturah are obligated to circumcise themselves on the eighth day but are not punished for failing to do so 100 the talmudist ulla wrote of 30 laws which the sons of noah took upon themselves he only lists three namely the three that the gentiles follow not to create a ketubah between males not to sell carrion or human flesh in the market and to respect the torah the rest of the laws are not listed 101 though the authorities seem to take it for granted that ulla s thirty commandments included the original seven an additional thirty laws are also possible from the reading 102 103 two different lists of the 30 laws exist both lists include an additional twenty three mitzvot which are subdivisions or extensions of the seven laws one from the 16th century work asarah maamarot by rabbi menahem azariah da fano and a second from the 10th century samuel ben hofni which was recently published from his judeo arabic writings after having been found in the cairo geniza 104 105 rabbi zvi hirsch chajes suggests menahem azariah of fano enumerated commandments are not related to the first seven nor based on the written torah but instead were passed down by oral tradition 106 ger toshav resident alien edit main article ger toshav during biblical times a gentile living in the land of israel who did not want to convert to judaism but accepted the seven laws of noah as binding upon himself was granted the legal status of ger toshav hebrew גר תושב ger foreigner or alien toshav resident lit resident alien 7 107 108 109 a ger toshav is therefore commonly deemed a righteous gentile hebrew חסיד אומות העולם chassid umot ha olam pious people of the world 5 7 11 17 18 19 and is assured of a place in the world to come olam ha ba 5 7 11 17 18 19 the rabbinic regulations regarding jewish gentile relations are modified in the case of a ger toshav 18 the accepted halakhic opinion is that the ger toshav must accept the seven noahide laws in the presence of three haberim men of authority 109 or according to the rabbinic tradition before a beth din jewish rabbinical court 18 he will receive certain legal protection and privileges from the jewish community and there is an obligation to render him aid when in need the restrictions on having a gentile do work for a jew on the shabbat are also greater when the gentile is a ger toshav 18 according to the jewish philosopher and professor menachem kellner s study on maimonidean texts 1991 a ger toshav could be a transitional stage on the way to becoming a righteous alien hebrew גר צדק ger tzedek i e a full convert to judaism 110 he conjectures that according to maimonides only a full ger tzedek would be found during the messianic era 110 furthermore kellner criticizes the assumption within orthodox judaism that there is an ontological divide between jews and gentiles 111 which he believes is contrary to what maimonides thought and the torah teaches 111 stating that gentiles as well as jews are fully created in the image of god 111 according to christine hayes an american 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