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donate create account log in contents move to sidebar hide top 1 organization toggle organization subsection 1 1 timing 1 2 overlap 1 3 eye contact 2 cultural variation 3 gender 4 see also 5 references toggle the table of contents turn taking 3 languages deutsch français 한국어 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia type of organization in conversation and discourse individuals involved in a conversation take turns speaking turn taking is a type of organization in conversation and discourse where participants speak one at a time in alternating turns in practice it involves processes for constructing contributions responding to previous comments and transitioning to a different speaker using a variety of linguistic and non linguistic cues 1 while the structure is generally universal 2 that is overlapping talk is generally avoided and silence between turns is minimized turn taking conventions vary by culture and community 3 conventions vary in many ways such as how turns are distributed how transitions are signaled or how long the average gap is between turns sensitivity to turn taking exists in other species 4 and develops early in humans emerging within the first year of life two month olds can recognize whether a human partner or an object responds to infants own actions in a contingent manner 5 6 from seven months of age infants can understand that such turn taking reactivity is shown by psychological agents 7 8 9 from 10 months of age infants recognize that turn taking is fundamental in communicative exchanges 10 11 they can identify the transfer of communicative information or the lack of it 12 based on three dimensions of turn taking contingent responding the when is it a turn taking response what is it a meaningful response and how is it a congruent response accordingly the contingency cube theory 13 posits that infants are capable of all these sophisticated inferences because by relying on these three dimensions they can keep track of the predictability of others reactions and decide whether a behavior is for instance communicative or not in many contexts conversation turns are a valuable means to participate in social life and have been subject to competition 14 it is often thought that turn taking strategies differ by gender consequently turn taking has been a topic of intense examination in gender studies while early studies supported gendered stereotypes such as men interrupting more than women and women talking more than men 15 recent research has found mixed evidence of gender specific conversational strategies and few overarching patterns have emerged 16 organization edit this section is missing information about theories other than conversation analysis please expand the section to include this information further details may exist on the talk page june 2016 in conversation analysis turn taking organization describes the sets of practices speakers use to construct and allocate turns 1 the organization of turn taking was first explored as a part of conversation analysis by harvey sacks with emanuel schegloff and gail jefferson in the late 1960s early 1970s and their model is still generally accepted in the field 17 turn taking structure within a conversation has three components 18 the turn taking component contains the main content of the utterance and is built from various unit types turn construction units or tcus the end of a tcu is a point where the turn may end and a new speaker may begin known as a transition relevance place or trp the turn allocation component comprises techniques that select the next speaker there are two types of techniques those where the current speaker selects the next speaker and those where the next speaker selects themself rules govern turn construction and give options to designate the next turn taker in such a way as to minimize gaps and overlap once a trp is reached the following rules are applied in order the current speaker selects the next speaker and transfers the turn to them or one of the non speakers self selects with the first person to speak claiming the next turn or no one self selects and the current speaker continues until the next trp or the conversation ends this order of steps serves to maintain two important elements of conversation one person speaking at a time and minimized space between when one person stops talking and another begins 19 because the system is not optimized for fairness or efficiency and because turn taking is not reliant on a set number or type of participants 19 there are many variations in how turn taking occurs 20 timing edit another cue associated with turn taking is that of timing within turn taking timing may cue the hearer to know that they have a turn to speak or make an utterance due to the very nature of turn taking and that it is dependent on the context timing varies within a turn and may be subjective within the conversation vocal patterns such as pitch specific to the individual also cue the hearer to know how the timing will play out in turn taking 21 deborah tannen also shows timing differences in relation to turn taking for a particular study she used a recording of a conversation between a group of her friends at dinner the group included men and women from across the united states of mixed ethnicities she concluded that while the amount of space left between speakers may differ it differs most dramatically between people from different regions for instance new yorkers tend to overlap in conversation while californians tend to leave more space between turns and sentences 22 kobin h kendrick argues that rules and constraints that are established within a turn taking system are done so to minimize the amount of time spent transitioning between turns 23 not all transitions are minimal schlegloff found that transitions before turns that incorporate other initiations of repair oirs e g what who were found to be longer than other transitions 24 overlap edit when more than one person is engaging in a conversation there is potential for overlapping or interruption while both or many parties are speaking at the same time overlapping in turn taking can be problematic for the people involved there are four types of overlap including terminal overlaps continuers conditional access to the turn and chordal terminal overlaps occur when a speaker assumes the other speaker has or is about to finish their turn and begins to speak thus creating overlap continuers are a way of the hearer acknowledging or understanding what the speaker is saying as noted by schegloff such examples of the continuer s phrases are mm hm or uh huh conditional access to the turn implies that the current speaker yields their turn or invites another speaker to interject in the conversation usually as collaborative effort 25 another example that schegloff illustrates is a speaker invited another to speak out of turn when finding a word in a word search chordal consists of a non serial occurrence of turns meaning both speakers turns are occurring at once such as laughter the above types of overlap are considered to be non competitive overlap in conversation 25 schegloff suggested an overlap resolution device which consists of three parts 25 a set of resources that are used to compete for the turn space a set of places where the resources are used an interactional logic of the use of those resources at those places gail jefferson proposed a categorization of overlaps in conversation with three types of overlap onsets transitional overlap recognitional overlap and progressional overlap 26 transitional overlap occurs when a speaker enters the conversation at the possible point of completion i e transition relevance place this occurs frequently when speakers participate in the conversation enthusiastically and exchange speeches with continuity recognitional overlap occurs when a speaker anticipates the possible remainder of an unfinished sentence and attempts to finish it for the current speaker in other words the overlap arises because the current speaker tries to finish the sentence when simultaneously the other speaker thinks aloud to reflect their understanding of the ongoing speech progressional overlap occurs as a result of the speech dysfluency of the previous speaker when another speaker self selects to continue with the ongoing utterance an example would be when a speaker is retrieving an appropriate word to utter when other speakers make use of this gap to start their turn sacks one of the first to study conversation found a correlation between keeping only one person speaking at a time and controlling the amount of silences between speakers 19 although there is no limit or specific requirement for the number of speakers in a given conversation the number of conversations will rise as the number of participants rise overlaps can often be seen as problematic in terms of turn taking with the majority of research being between cooperative versus competitive overlap one theory by goldberg 1990 27 argues the dynamic relationship between overlap and power over the conversation by suggesting that two types of overlap are power interruptions and displays of rapport during conversation a listener has an obligation to support the speaker an interruption impedes upon this obligation by infringing upon the wishes of the speaker which is to be heard the difference between a power interruption or rapport is the degree to which the speakers wishes are impeded upon rapport interruptions contribute to the conversation in that they ultimately cooperate and collaborate with the speaker in order to reach a mutual goal of understanding power interruptions are generally hostile and do not cooperate with the speaker the goals of the power interruptor are both divergent from and regardless of the goals of the speaker power interruptions are further categorized into two types process control interruptions and content control interruptions process control interruptions involve attempts to change the topic by utilizing questions and requests and because they return control to the original speaker are generally seen as the less threatening of the two content control interruptions involve attempts to change the topic by utilizing assertions or statements that are unrelated to the current topic content control interruptions are viewed as problematic and threatening since they seize control of both the topic and attention away from the speaker however while overlaps have the potential to be competitive many overlaps are cooperative schegloff 25 concludes that the majority of overlaps are non problematic konakahara et al 28 explores cooperative overlap by observing 15 graduate students from 11 different lingua cultural backgrounds in an elf english as a lingua franca conversation or an english based conversation among individuals of multiple native languages two types of overlap were observed overlaps that were continuers or assessments and did not substantially contribute to the conversation or demand attention away from the speaker and overlaps that were questions or statements and moved the conversation forwards the majority of overlap during the study consisted of continuers or assessments that were non interruptive overlapping questions and their interactional environment were analyzed in particular it was found that overlapping questions demonstrate the speaker s interest in the conversation and knowledge of the content act as clarifiers and progress the conversation in response speakers who are interrupted by overlapping questions continue on to clarify their meaning this suggests that overlapping questions while interruptive in the fact that they demand attention away from the speaker are cooperative in nature in that they significantly contribute to achieving mutual understanding and communication while goldberg s study primarily focuses on the distinctions and characteristics between power interrupters and displays of rapport konakahara et al explores the ways in which overlap in particular overlapping questions can be collaborative and cooperative eye contact edit during a conversation turn taking may involve a cued gaze that prompts the listener that it is their turn or that the speaker is finished talking there are two gazes that have been identified and associated with turn taking the two patterns associated with turn taking are mutual break and mutual hold mutual break is when there is a pause in the conversation and both participants use a momentary break with mutual gaze toward each other breaking the gaze then continuing conversation again this type is correlated with a perceived smoothness due to a decrease in the taking of turns mutual hold is when the speaker also takes a pause in the conversation with mutual gaze but then still holds the gaze as they start to speak again mutual hold is associated with less successful turn taking process because there are more turns taken thus more turns required to complete 29 david langford also argues that turn taking is an organizational system langford examines facial features eye contact and other gestures in order to prove that turn taking is signaled by many gestures not only a break in speech his claims stem from analysis of conversations through speech sign language and technology his comparisons of english and american sign language show that turn taking is systematic and universal across languages and cultures his research concludes that there is more to turn taking than simply hearing a pause as other researchers have shown eye gaze is an important signal for participants of a conversation to pay attention to usually whoever is speaking will shift their gaze away from the other participants involved in the conversation when they are finished or about to be finished speaking the speaker will revert their gaze back to the participant that will speak next 30 cultural variation edit turn taking is developed and socialized from very early on the first instances being the interactions between parent and child but it can still be thought of as a learned skill rather than an innate attribute 31 conversational turn taking is greatly affected by culture for instance in japanese culture social structure and norms of interaction are reflected in the negotiation of turns in japanese discourse specifically with the use of backchannel or reactive tokens aizuchi 32 backchannel refers to listener responses mostly phatic expressions that are made by a listener to support another speaker s flow of speech and right to maintain the floor in conversation aizuchi is simply the...
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