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времена сеобе народа phd thesis faculty of philosophy university of belgrade милинковић м 2010 градина на јелици рановизантијски град и средњовековно насеље београд molnar m janos i szucs l szathmary l 2014 artificially deformed crania from the hun germanic period 5th 6th century ad in northeastern hungary historical and morphological analysis neurosurg focus 36 4 mrkobrad d 1980 arheološki nalazi seobe naroda u jugoslaviji belgrade muzej grada beograda o brien g t peters r l hines e m 2013 artificial cranial deformation potential implications of affected brain function anthropology 1 3 2 6 open access ortner d j putschar w g j 1981 identification of pathological conditions in human skeletal remains washington smithsonian institution press white t d black m t folkens p a 2012 human osteology 3rd edition san diego academic press tags articial cranial deformation great migration period guest post maja miljević osteology serbian archaeology comments 3 comments categories artificial cranial modification bioarchaeology cranial modification european great migration great migration period guest blog entries historic archaeology human growth human osteology occipital osteology osteology terminology palaeopathology serbian archaeology skull skull terminology university of belgrade skeletal series part 3 the human skull 22 apr in this post i will be discussing the basics of the human skull its anatomical features number of elements terminology key functions and how to handle a skull alongside the earlier blog on variations in human skeleton and the ethics that should be considered this should prepare the user for interaction and identification of physical remains a skull in situ from the gadot archaeological site in israel individual elements found in the human skull individual elements discussed below pearson education 2000 the human skull is one of the most complex structures in the human skeleton it houses the foundations for the sense of smell sight taste hearing alongside the housing of the brain it also provides the framework for the first processes of digestion by mastication of food with the use of the teeth anchored in mandible and maxilla bones white folkens 2005 75 white folkens 2005 go on to note that it is of value that the key anatomical landmarks of the skull are noted these include the orbits of the eye sockets the anterior nasal aperture nose hole external auditory meati ear canals the zygomatic arches cheek bones along with the foramen magnum base of the skull it is by these landmarks that we can orientate the skeletal elements if they are disarticulated or have been broken white folkens 2005 75 excavation particular care should be taken when excavating the skull or any human skeletal element careful consideration should be made of its location burial type any nearby skeletons and of course any different stratigraphic colour cut fill features present should be noted mays 1999 as this is the only chance to lift the skeleton since deposition careful notes should be made on first impression and any post depositional changes that can be immediately identified careful sieving of the soil matrix around the skull should take place to help retain any small fragments of bone or lose teeth whole and partial fragments mays 1999 differential preservation dependent on deposition burial environment conditions will mean that it is likely sections of the skull will not survive these are often the small delicate bones located inside the cranial facial portion of the skull the likeliest to survive portions are the mandible and the cranial plate elements because of their tough biological nature handling when handling the skull it should be noted of the above major landmarks for example you will not damage the skull whilst carefully holding it in both your hands but if you hold it by the orbits you are liable to damage the surrounding bone the foramen magnum is usually stable and strong it to withstand creeping fingers as a hold place whilst studying the skull on a desk a padded surface should be provided for it to rest upon care should be taken when handling the mandible and temptation should be resisted in testing the mechanical properties of the surrounding bone mays 1999 anatomical planes for use between comparative material it is useful to use a standardized set of viewing planes the human skull is often viewed via the frankfurt horizontal white folkens 2005 the fh is a plane of three osteometric points conceived in 1884 see above link the skull is normally viewed from six standard perspectives these include norma verticalis viewed from above norma lateralis viewed from either side norma occipitalis viewed from behind norma basilaris viewed from underneath and norma frontalis viewed from the front thus when considered with osteometric points measurements can be taken and compared and contrasted white folkens 2005 86 cranial terminology and elements the s kull refers to the entire framework including the lower jaw the mandible is the lower jaw the cranium is the skull without the mandible the calvaria is the cranium without the face portion the calotte is the calvaria without the base of the skull the splanchnocranium is the facial skeleton the neurocranium is the braincase the skull in infants is made up of 45 separate elements but as an adult it is normally made up of 28 elements including the ear ossicles white folkens 2005 77 the hyoid bone the voice box bone is generally not included in the count of skull bones the identification of the elements can be made hard as idiosyncratic differences and fusion between plates of the cranium can lead to differences a number of elements in the human skull are paired elements simply that they are part of two identical bones in the skull alongside this there are also separate elements the list is below paired elements parietal bones located form the side and roof of the cranial vault temporal bones located laterally and house the exterior and interior auditory meatus they also include the temporomandibular joint tmj for short the auditory ossicles the malleus incus and stapes 6 bones altogether are located in both of the ears very near the temporal bones very often never recovered in archaeological samples maxillae bones located proximal to the mandile houses the upper jaw palatine bones located inside the mouth and forms the hard palate and part of the nasal cavity inferior nasal conchae bones located laterally inside the nasal cavity lacrimal bones located medially in the orbits nasal bones located distally to the frontal bone helping to form the upper nose zygomatic bones they are the cheekbones norma lateralis view of the human skull pearson education 2000 single elements frontal bone located anterior it is the brow of the skull occipital bone located to the rear of the skull houses the foramen magnum vomer bone located in the splanchnocranium and divides the nasal cavity ethmoid bone a light and spongy bone located between the orbits sphenoid bone located inside the front of the splanchnocranium a very complex bone mandible bone the lower jaw norma frontalis view of the human skull note the large orbits pearson education 2000 norma basilaris view of the human skull note the foramen magnum where the spinal chord enters the skulls to connect with the brain pearson education 2000 intracranial superior view of the human skull again note the foramen magnum where the spinal chord enters the skull to join the brain and the thickness of the outer and inner cortical bones of the skull pearson education 2000 general discussion the human skull is a complex part of the body it is key in identification of sex by the size of the mastoid process supraorbital torus tooth size and the squareness of the mandible amongst others it can also be used in describing age at death by tooth wear cranial suture closure and general porosity of the bone roberts manchester 2010 white folkens 2005 jurmain et al 2011 a later post will detail exactly how in further detail it has also changed as our species homo sapiens evolved from earlier hominids the morphology of the human skull has certainly become more gracile and as an indicator and outcome of the agricultural revolution it seems our mandibular size and muscle robusticity has slowly become less pronounced larsen 1999 230 jurmain et al 2011 as larsen remarks 1999 226 it is the influence of environment and mechanical behaviour that helps determine the morphology of the skull alongside considered genetic factors it is important we keep this in mind as we look at archaeological material studying population trends in both temporal cultural and geographic contexts can have important results and can also highlight long term trends one such trend is the discussion that a change to a more globular cranial change in the holocene represents a compensatory response to decrease in functional demands as foods become softer larsen 1999 268 this is underscored in archaeological populations worldwide that consumed abrasive foods with populations that consumed non abrasive foods by being affected by food production processes the nature of the food itself the morphology of the cranial facial biomechanics has changed to adjust to differing food sources this change has influenced cranio facial size and morphology occlusal abnormalities tooth size dental trauma and gross wear from masticatory and non masticatory functions larsen 1999 269 waldron 2009 case study a mesolithic neolithic population trend in ancient japan one example of the importance of cranial studies and of the skull in general in archaeology is the discussion of population change during the end of the jomon period of japan lasting roughly from 14 000 bc to 300 bc the jomon culture has evidence for the earliest use of pottery in the world and made extensive use of the large variety of environments in the japanese archipelago mithen 2003 this culture has been classed as largely hunter gather forager in lifestyle until roughly the yayoi period around 300 bc when the adoption to agriculture was fully implemented with intensive rice agriculture weaving and the introduction of metallurgy mays 1998 90 the evidence suggests that the yayoi were settlers from mainland asia with the evidence from craniometric studies and dental studies of both jomon and yayoi populations alongside a comparative study with the modern day aboriginal ainu people who inhabit the island of hakkaido north of mainland japan the ainu population themselves maintain that they are the descendents of the jomon people and with the skeletal data of skull morphology in the modern population compared to the jomon archaeological data set the evidence seems to match mays 1998 92 population pressures during the end of the jomon period and movement of the jomon culture is therefore suggested as a geographic movement the skeletal data from the modern day ainu population concentrated in hokkaido provide evidence of a jomon movement north due to pressure as mainland japanese modern population cranial measurements shows a mix of origin mays 1998 90 the importance of this work highlights the movement of the adaptation of agriculture in a relatively late time frame in comparison to mainland asia and europe the palaeoenvironmental evidence suggests the richness and diversity of the japanese archipelago with heavy densities of the jomon population in 3500 bc located in central and eastern japan kaner ishikawa 2007 2 stable village sites with pits dwellings storage areas and burial facilities have been excavated and studied yet there is only a hint of cultivating nuts and plants ongoing date conflicts with ams results from human and animal bone have suggested the impact of the yayoi culture to be pushed back to 1000 bc or 900 bc however the results could be contaminated with the marine radiocarbon reservoir effect a natural distortion of dates and thus a possible need to recalibrate existing dates kaner ishikawa 2007 4 the outcome of the timing of adoption of agriculture in the late jomon yayoi period is still hotly debated yet the archaeological and osteoarchaeological evidence presents a hunter gather society managing to thrive without agriculture in diverse environments until later cultures and migrations of people came into contact with the jomon culture mays 1998 further information of course teeth are a vital and special component of the human body as previously discussed they shall be given their own post in further detail in due course a human skull tutorial website can be found here with interactive pictures detailing each of the bones contained in the skull individual photographs of the skull elements can be found here bibliography jurmain r kilgore l trevathan w 2011 essentials of physical anthropology international edition london wadworth kaner s and ishikawa t 2007 reassessing the concept of neolithic in the jomon of western japan documenta preahistorica 2007 1 7 larsen c 1997 bioarchaeology interpreting behaviour from the human skeleton cambridge cambridge university press mays s 1999 the archaeology of human bones glasgow bell bain ltd mithen s 2003 after the ice a global human history 20 000 5000 bc london weidenfeld nicolson roberts c manchester k 2010 the archaeology of disease third edition stroud the history press waldron t 2009 palaeopathology cambridge manuals in archaeology cambridge cambridge university press white t folkens p 2005 the human bone manual london elsevier academic press tags skeletal series comments 6 comments categories ainu archaeology babao bioarchaeology biology biomechanics bone basics bone variation crainiometrics ethmoid ethnography frontal human osteology inferior nasal conchae jomon lacrimal mandible maxilla occipital osteology palaeopathology palatine parietal sex variation skeletal series skull skull anatomical terms skull diagrams skull excavation skull handling skull terminology sphenoid temporal vomer yayoi zygomatic skeletal series b the biological basis of teeth and anatomical directional terms 5 mar as mentioned in the previous post teeth are a distinct part of human anatomy and are of special interest to the human osteologist in archaeological contexts teeth are the most resistant skeletal element to chemical or physical destruction during burial of human remains and as such are often over represented in the archaeological record as the only skeletal element that directly interacts with the environment via mastication of food teeth are a vital source of knowledge on the age sex and diet of individuals and past populations white folkens 2005 there is now an extensive academic research body of materials and articles available on the study of both hominin and archaeological teeth teeth in situation in the maxilla upper jaw and mandible lower jaw of a saxon skull origin anatomy dentition is often found in the lower and upper jaw of most animals and are thought to have developed 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