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learn c skill up with our free tutorials en fr de es it hr sv sr sl nl privacy transparency we and our partners use cookies to store and or access information on a device we and our partners use data for personalised ads and content ad and content measurement audience insights and product development an example of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cookie some of our partners may process your data as a part of their legitimate business interest without asking for consent to view the purposes they believe they have legitimate interest for or to object to this data processing use the vendor list link below the consent submitted will only be used for data processing originating from this website if you would like to change your settings or withdraw consent at any time the link to do so is in our privacy policy accessible from our home page manage settings continue with recommended cookies vendor list privacy policy site index latest changes about site faq leave feedback report an issue contact support search search for search learn c skill up with our free tutorials skip to content site index latest changes about site faq leave feedback report an issue contact support search search for search the c tutorial learncpp com is a free website devoted to teaching you how to program in c whether you ve had any prior programming experience or not the tutorials on this site will walk you through all the steps to write compile and debug your c programs all with plenty of examples becoming an expert won t happen overnight but with a little patience you ll get there and learncpp com will show you the way chapter 0 introduction getting started 0 1 introduction to these tutorials 0 2 introduction to programming languages 0 3 introduction to c c 0 4 introduction to c development 0 5 introduction to the compiler linker and libraries 0 6 installing an integrated development environment ide 0 7 compiling your first program 0 8 a few common c problems 0 9 configuring your compiler build configurations 0 10 configuring your compiler compiler extensions 0 11 configuring your compiler warning and error levels 0 12 configuring your compiler choosing a language standard chapter 1 c basics 1 1 statements and the structure of a program 1 2 comments 1 3 introduction to objects and variables 1 4 variable assignment and initialization 1 5 introduction to iostream cout cin and endl 1 6 uninitialized variables and undefined behavior 1 7 keywords and naming identifiers 1 8 whitespace and basic formatting 1 9 introduction to literals and operators 1 10 introduction to expressions 1 11 developing your first program 1 x chapter 1 summary and quiz chapter 2 c basics functions and files 2 1 introduction to functions 2 2 function return values value returning functions 2 3 void functions non value returning functions 2 4 introduction to function parameters and arguments 2 5 introduction to local scope 2 6 why functions are useful and how to use them effectively 2 7 forward declarations and definitions 2 8 programs with multiple code files 2 9 naming collisions and an introduction to namespaces 2 10 introduction to the preprocessor 2 11 header files 2 12 header guards 2 13 how to design your first programs 2 x chapter 2 summary and quiz chapter 3 debugging c programs 3 1 syntax and semantic errors 3 2 the debugging process 3 3 a strategy for debugging 3 4 basic debugging tactics 3 5 more debugging tactics 3 6 using an integrated debugger stepping 3 7 using an integrated debugger running and breakpoints 3 8 using an integrated debugger watching variables 3 9 using an integrated debugger the call stack 3 10 finding issues before they become problems 3 x chapter 3 summary and quiz chapter 4 fundamental data types 4 1 introduction to fundamental data types 4 2 void 4 3 object sizes and the sizeof operator 4 4 signed integers 4 5 unsigned integers and why to avoid them 4 6 fixed width integers and size_t 4 7 introduction to scientific notation 4 8 floating point numbers 4 9 boolean values 4 10 introduction to if statements 4 11 chars 4 12 introduction to type conversion and static_cast 4 13 const variables and symbolic constants 4 14 compile time constants constant expressions and constexpr 4 15 literals 4 16 numeral systems decimal binary hexadecimal and octal 4 17 introduction to std string 4 18 introduction to std string_view 4 19 std string_view part 2 4 x chapter 4 summary and quiz chapter 5 operators 5 1 operator precedence and associativity 5 2 arithmetic operators 5 3 remainder and exponentiation 5 4 increment decrement operators and side effects 5 5 comma and conditional operators 5 6 relational operators and floating point comparisons 5 7 logical operators 5 x chapter 5 summary and quiz chapter o bit manipulation optional chapter o 1 bit flags and bit manipulation via std bitset o 2 bitwise operators o 3 bit manipulation with bitwise operators and bit masks o 4 converting integers between binary and decimal representation chapter 6 scope duration and linkage 6 1 compound statements blocks 6 2 user defined namespaces and the scope resolution operator 6 3 local variables 6 4 introduction to global variables 6 5 variable shadowing name hiding 6 6 internal linkage 6 7 external linkage and variable forward declarations 6 8 why non const global variables are evil 6 9 sharing global constants across multiple files using inline variables 6 10 static local variables 6 11 scope duration and linkage summary 6 12 using declarations and using directives 6 13 inline functions 6 14 constexpr and consteval functions 6 15 unnamed and inline namespaces 6 x chapter 6 summary and quiz chapter 7 control flow and error handling 7 1 control flow introduction 7 2 if statements and blocks 7 3 common if statement problems 7 4 constexpr if statements 7 5 switch statement basics 7 6 switch fallthrough and scoping 7 7 goto statements 7 8 introduction to loops and while statements 7 9 do while statements 7 10 for statements 7 11 break and continue 7 12 halts exiting your program early 7 13 introduction to testing your code 7 14 code coverage 7 15 common semantic errors in c 7 16 detecting and handling errors 7 17 std cin and handling invalid input 7 18 assert and static_assert 7 19 introduction to random number generation 7 20 generating random numbers using mersenne twister 7 x chapter 7 summary and quiz chapter 8 type conversion and function overloading 8 1 implicit type conversion coercion 8 2 floating point and integral promotion 8 3 numeric conversions 8 4 narrowing conversions list initialization and constexpr initializers 8 5 arithmetic conversions 8 6 explicit type conversion casting and static_cast 8 7 typedefs and type aliases 8 8 type deduction for objects using the auto keyword 8 9 type deduction for functions 8 10 introduction to function overloading 8 11 function overload differentiation 8 12 function overload resolution and ambiguous matches 8 13 default arguments 8 14 function templates 8 15 function template instantiation 8 16 function templates with multiple template types 8 17 non type template parameters 8 x chapter 8 summary and quiz chapter 9 compound types references and pointers 9 1 introduction to compound data types 9 2 value categories lvalues and rvalues 9 3 lvalue references 9 4 lvalue references to const 9 5 pass by lvalue reference 9 6 introduction to pointers 9 7 null pointers 9 8 pointers and const 9 9 pass by address 9 10 pass by address part 2 9 11 return by reference and return by address 9 12 type deduction with pointers references and const 9 x chapter 9 summary and quiz chapter 10 compound types enums and structs 10 1 introduction to program defined user defined types 10 2 unscoped enumerations 10 3 unscoped enumeration input and output 10 4 scoped enumerations enum classes 10 5 introduction to structs members and member selection 10 6 struct aggregate initialization 10 7 default member initialization 10 8 passing and returning structs 10 9 struct miscellany 10 10 member selection with pointers and references 10 11 class templates 10 12 class template argument deduction ctad and deduction guides 10 x chapter 10 summary and quiz 10 y using a language reference chapter 11 arrays strings and dynamic allocation 11 1 arrays part i 11 2 arrays part ii 11 3 arrays and loops 11 4 sorting an array using selection sort 11 5 multidimensional arrays 11 6 c style strings 11 7 pointers and arrays 11 8 pointer arithmetic and array indexing 11 9 c style string symbolic constants 11 10 dynamic memory allocation with new and delete 11 11 dynamically allocating arrays 11 12 for each loops 11 13 void pointers 11 14 pointers to pointers and dynamic multidimensional arrays 11 15 an introduction to std array 11 16 an introduction to std vector 11 17 introduction to iterators 11 18 introduction to standard library algorithms 11 x chapter 11 comprehensive quiz chapter 12 functions 12 1 function pointers 12 2 the stack and the heap 12 3 std vector capacity and stack behavior 12 4 recursion 12 5 command line arguments 12 6 ellipsis and why to avoid them 12 7 introduction to lambdas anonymous functions 12 8 lambda captures 12 x chapter 12 comprehensive quiz chapter 13 basic object oriented programming 13 1 welcome to object oriented programming 13 2 classes and class members 13 3 public vs private access specifiers 13 4 access functions and encapsulation 13 5 constructors 13 6 constructor member initializer lists 13 7 non static member initialization 13 8 overlapping and delegating constructors 13 9 destructors 13 10 the hidden this pointer 13 11 class code and header files 13 12 const class objects and member functions 13 13 static member variables 13 14 static member functions 13 15 friend functions and classes 13 16 anonymous objects 13 17 nested types in classes 13 18 timing your code 13 x chapter 13 comprehensive quiz chapter 14 operator overloading 14 1 introduction to operator overloading 14 2 overloading the arithmetic operators using friend functions 14 3 overloading operators using normal functions 14 4 overloading the i o operators 14 5 overloading operators using member functions 14 6 overloading unary operators and 14 7 overloading the comparison operators 14 8 overloading the increment and decrement operators 14 9 overloading the subscript operator 14 10 overloading the parenthesis operator 14 11 overloading typecasts 14 12 the copy constructor 14 13 copy initialization 14 14 converting constructors explicit and delete 14 15 overloading the assignment operator 14 16 shallow vs deep copying 14 17 overloading operators and function templates 14 x chapter 14 comprehensive quiz 14 y chapter 14 project chapter 15 reserved for future reorganization chapter 16 an introduction to object relationships 16 1 object relationships 16 2 composition 16 3 aggregation 16 4 association 16 5 dependencies 16 6 container classes 16 7 std initializer_list 16 x chapter 16 comprehensive quiz chapter 17 inheritance 17 1 introduction to inheritance 17 2 basic inheritance in c 17 3 order of construction of derived classes 17 4 constructors and initialization of derived classes 17 5 inheritance and access specifiers 17 6 adding new functionality to a derived class 17 7 calling inherited functions and overriding behavior 17 8 hiding inherited functionality 17 9 multiple inheritance 17 x chapter 17 comprehensive quiz chapter 18 virtual functions 18 1 pointers and references to the base class of derived objects 18 2 virtual functions and polymorphism 18 3 the override and final specifiers and covariant return types 18 4 virtual destructors virtual assignment and overriding virtualization 18 5 early binding and late binding 18 6 the virtual table 18 7 pure virtual functions abstract base classes and interface classes 18 8 virtual base classes 18 9 object slicing 18 10 dynamic casting 18 11 printing inherited classes using operator 18 x chapter 18 comprehensive quiz chapter 19 templates and classes 19 1 template classes 19 2 template non type parameters 19 3 function template specialization 19 4 class template specialization 19 5 partial template specialization 19 6 partial template specialization for pointers 19 x chapter 19 comprehensive quiz chapter 20 exceptions 20 1 the need for exceptions 20 2 basic exception handling 20 3 exceptions functions and stack unwinding 20 4 uncaught exceptions and catch all handlers 20 5 exceptions classes and inheritance 20 6 rethrowing exceptions 20 7 function try blocks 20 8 exception dangers and downsides 20 9 exception specifications and noexcept 20 x chapter 20 comprehensive quiz chapter m move semantics and smart pointers m 1 introduction to smart pointers and move semantics m 2 r value references m 3 move constructors and move assignment m 4 std move m 5 std move_if_noexcept m 6 std unique_ptr m 7 std shared_ptr m 8 circular dependency issues with std shared_ptr and std weak_ptr m x chapter m comprehensive review chapter 21 the standard template library 21 1 the standard library 21 2 stl containers overview 21 3 stl iterators overview 21 4 stl algorithms overview chapter 22 std string 22 1 std string and std wstring 22 2 std string construction and destruction 22 3 std string length and capacity 22 4 std string character access and conversion to c style arrays 22 5 std string assignment and swapping 22 6 std string appending 22 7 std string inserting chapter 23 input and output i o 23 1 input and output i o streams 23 2 input with istream 23 3 output with ostream and ios 23 4 stream classes for strings 23 5 stream states and input validation 23 6 basic file i o 23 7 random file i o appendix a miscellaneous subjects a 1 static and dynamic libraries a 2 using libraries with visual studio a 3 using libraries with code blocks a 4 c faq appendix b c updates b 1 introduction to c 11 b 2 introduction to c 14 b 3 introduction to c 17 b 4 introduction to c 20 appendix c the end c 1 the end report this ad latest changes 2023 jul 21 split 10 9 struct miscellany 2023 jul 18 revision 13 4 access functions and encapsulation 2023 jul 18 revision 20 5 exceptions classes and inheritance 2023 jul 13 revision 6 14 constexpr and consteval functions 2023 jul 13 revision 4 14 compile time constants constant expressions and constexpr see all changes report this ad 2022 learn c x
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