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a program it benefits others in an open source environment another motivation is that a programmer can work on multiple projects that they find interesting and enjoyable programming in the open source world can also lead to commercial job offers or entrance into the venture capital community these are just a few reasons why open source programmers continue to create and advance software 11 while cognizant of the fact that both the free software movement and the open source movement share similarities in practical recommendations regarding open source the free software movement fervently continues to distinguish itself from the open source movement entirely 12 the free software movement maintains that it has fundamentally different attitudes toward the relationship between open source and proprietary software the free software community does not view the open source community as their target grievance however their target grievance is proprietary software itself 3 legal issues edit the open source movement has faced a number of legal challenges companies that manage open source products have some difficulty securing their trademarks for example the scope of implied license conjecture remains unclear and can compromise an enterprise s ability to patent productions made with open source software another example is the case of companies offering add ons for purchase licensees who make additions to the open source code that are similar to those for purchase may have immunity from patent suits in the court case jacobsen v katzer the plaintiff sued the defendant for failing to put the required attribution notices in his modified version of the software thereby violating license the defendant claimed artistic license in not adhering to the conditions of the software s use but the wording of the attribution notice decided that this was not the case jacobsen v katzer established open source software s equality to proprietary software in the eyes of the law in a court case accusing microsoft of being a monopoly linux and open source software was introduced in court to prove that microsoft had valid competitors and was grouped in with apple 13 there are resources available for those involved open source projects in need of legal advice the software freedom law center features a primer on open source legal issues international free and open source software law review offers peer reviewed information for lawyers on free software issues formalization edit the open source initiative osi was instrumental in the formalization of the open source movement the osi was founded by eric raymond and bruce perens in february 1998 with the purpose of providing general education and advocacy of the open source label through the creation of the open source definition that was based on the debian free software guidelines the osi has become one of the main supporters and advocators of the open source movement 6 in february 1998 the open source movement was adopted formalized and spearheaded by the open source initiative osi an organization formed to market software as something more amenable to commercial business use 3 the osi applied to register open source with the us patent and trademark office but was denied due to the term being generic and or descriptive consequently the osi does not own the trademark open source in a national or international sense although it does assert common law trademark rights in the term 2 the main tool they adopted for this was the open source definition 14 the open source label was conceived at a strategy session that was held on february 3 1998 in palo alto california and on april 8 of the same year the attendees of tim o reilly s free software summit voted to promote the use of the term open source 6 overall the software developments that have come out of the open source movement have not been unique to the computer science field but they have been successful in developing alternatives to propriety software members of the open source community improve upon code and write programs that can rival much of the propriety software that is already available 3 the rhetorical discourse used in open source movements is now being broadened to include a larger group of non expert users as well as advocacy organizations several organized groups such as the creative commons and global development agencies have also adopted the open source concepts according to their own aims and for their own purposes 15 the factors affecting the open source movement s legal formalization are primarily based on recent political discussion over copyright appropriation and intellectual property 16 social structure of open source contribution teams edit historically researchers have characterized open source contributors as a centralized onion shaped group 17 the center of the onion consists of the core contributors who drive the project forward through large amounts of code and software design choices the second most layer are contributors who respond to pull requests and bug reports the third most layer out are contributors who mainly submit bug reports the farthest out layer are those who watch the repository and users of the software that s generated this model has been used in research to understand the lifecycle of open source software understand contributors to open source software projects how tools such as can help contributors at the various levels of involvement in the project and further understand how the distributed nature of open source software may affect the productivity of developers 18 19 20 some researchers have disagreed with this model crowston et al s work has found that some teams are much less centralized and follow a more distributed workflow pattern 18 the authors report that there s a weak correlation between project size and centralization with smaller projects being more centralized and larger projects showing less centralization however the authors only looked at bug reporting and fixing so it remains unclear whether this pattern is only associated with bug finding and fixing or if centralization does become more distributed with size for every aspect of the open source paradigm an understanding of a team s centralization versus distributed nature is important as it may inform tool design and aid new developers in understanding a team s dynamic one concern with open source development is the high turnover rate of developers even among core contributors those at the center of the onion 21 in order to continue an open source project new developers must continually join but must also have the necessary skill set to contribute quality code to the project through a study of github contribution on open source projects middleton et al found that the largest predictor of contributors becoming full fledged members of an open source team moving to the core of the onion was whether they submitted and commented on pull requests the authors then suggest that github as a tool can aid in this process by supporting checkbox features on a team s open source project that urge contributors to take part in these activities 20 youth engagement edit the open source community has long recognized the importance of engaging younger generations to ensure the sustainability and innovation of open source projects however concerns have been raised about the aging demographic of open source contributors and the challenges of attracting younger developers in 2010 james bottomley a prominent linux kernel maintainer observed the graying of the linux kernel community a trend that continues today who can figure out and code in future generations with no dox david nalley president of the apache software foundation asf emphasized that maintaining legacy code is often unappealing to younger developers who prefer to work on new and innovative projects 22 while contributing to open source projects can provide valuable experience in development documentation internationalization and other areas barriers to entry often make it difficult for newcomers particularly younger individuals to get involved these challenges include technical psychological and motivational factors 23 to address these challenges initiatives like the linux kernel mentorship program aim to recruit and train new developers the lfx mentorship program also seeks to sponsor and mentor the next generation of open source developers and leaders across various projects 24 motivations of programmers edit see also motivations for online participation research has examined the motivations for programmers participation in open source development a study presented at the 15th annual congress of the european economic association analyzed individual and organizational incentives for contributing unpaid programming work noting that this form of intellectual gift giving challenges traditional economic models 25 several factors have been identified as potential motivations altruism while altruistic motivations exist among some contributors research suggests this factor has limitations as a primary explanation for the widespread participation in open source projects citation needed some researchers question why similar voluntary contributions are not observed in other fields that might have greater public benefit such as biotechnology 25 community collaboration and code improvement the collaborative online environment facilitates continuous software improvement through peer review and modification contributors benefit from others testing debugging and code enhancement creating a mutual benefit system that can result in higher quality software 25 professional recognition while projects may not always highlight individual contributors many platforms track and display contributor information this visibility can provide professional recognition career opportunities and industry exposure notable technology companies including sun microsystems and netscape were founded by individuals who began as open source contributors 25 technical challenge and skill demonstration some researchers have noted that programmers may approach complex problems as opportunities to demonstrate technical abilities to peers 26 the competitive nature of open source communities where users can also be developers may motivate participants to produce high quality work to gain peer recognition 27 creative expression research suggests that software development can provide personal satisfaction similar to artistic creation the collaborative nature of open source development may offer creative opportunities that differ from commercial software production environments 28 gender diversity of programmers edit see also diversity in open source software the vast majority of programmers in open source communities are male in a 2006 study for the european union on free and open source software communities researchers found that only 1 5 of all contributors are female 29 although women are generally underrepresented in computing the percentage of women in tech professions is actually much higher close to 25 30 this discrepancy suggests that female programmers are overall less likely than male programmers to participate in open source projects some research and interviews with members of open source projects have described a male dominated culture within open source communities that can be unwelcoming or hostile towards females 31 there are initiatives such as outreachy that aim to support more women and other underrepresented gender identities to participate in open source software however within the discussion forums of open source projects the topic of gender diversity can be highly controversial and even inflammatory 31 a central vision in open source software is that because the software is built and maintained on the merit of individual code contributions open source communities should act as a meritocracy 32 in a meritocracy the importance of an individual in the community depends on the quality of their individual contributions and not demographic factors such as age race religion or gender thus proposing changes to the community based on gender for example to make the community more inviting towards females go against the ideal of a meritocracy by targeting certain programmers by gender and not based on their skill alone 31 there is evidence that gender does impact a programmer s perceived merit in the community a 2016 study identified the gender of over one million programmers on github by linking the programmer s github account to their other social media accounts 33 between male and female programmers the researchers found that female programmers were actually more likely to have their pull requests accepted into the project than male programmers however only when the female had a gender neutral profile when females had profiles with a name or image that identified them as female they were less likely than male programmers to have their pull requests accepted another study in 2015 found that of open source projects on github gender diversity was a significant positive predictor of a team s productivity meaning that open source teams with a more even mix of different genders tended to be more highly productive 32 many projects have adopted the contributor covenant code of conduct in an attempt to address concerns of harassment of minority developers anyone found breaking the code of conduct can be disciplined and ultimately removed from the project in order to avoid offense to minorities many software projects have started to mandate the use of inclusive language and terminology 34 evidence of open source adoption edit main article free and open source software adoption libraries are using open source software to develop information as well as library services the purpose of open source is to provide a software that is cheaper reliable and has better quality the one feature that makes this software so sought after is that it is free libraries in particular benefit from this movement because of the resources it provides they also promote the same ideas of learning and understanding new information through the resources of other people open source allows a sense of community it is an invitation for anyone to provide information about various topics the open source tools even allow libraries to create web based catalogs according to the it source there are various library programs that benefit from this 35 government agencies and infrastructure software government agencies are utilizing open source infrastructure software like the linux operating system and the apache web server into software to manage information 36 in 2005 a new government lobby was launched under the name national center for open source policy and research ncospr a non profit organization promoting the use of open source software solutions within government it enterprises 37 open source movement in the military the military has explored open source software for pote...
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