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tradition of scholastic theology with the illuminative metaphysics of sufism it is one of the most remarkable yet underexplored works of indian sufi metaphysics written in eloquent arabic during the mughal period this treatise represents a profound defence of the doctrine of wahdat al wujūd the unity of being as articulated by ibn al ʿarabi and developed within the chishti sabiri tradition through a synthesis of qur anic revelation rational argument and mystical insight shaykh bihari demonstrates that only divine presence truly exists while all creation is but his self manifestation tajallī this essay explores the key arguments philosophical methods and enduring legacy of musallamus sabut within indo islamic intellectual tradition in an era when speculative philosophy falsafa and rational theology ilm al kalām are losing ground to juristic literalism in the indian madrasas we need to revitalize muhibbullah bihari s epistemology of usul ud deen and metaphysical kalām methodology as a living discipline his musallamus sabut reasserts the intellectual legitimacy of reasoning in matters of divine knowledge not as an alternative to revelation but as its inner unfolding shaykh bihāri and his intellectual milieu shaykh muhibbullah of bihār d 1058 ah 1648 ce stands among the foremost metaphysical thinkers of the indian sufi tradition a master of the chishti sabiri silsila he was a disciple of shaykh ʿabd al raḥmān chishti and a contemporary of emperor shah jahan his spiritual circle in allahabad then known as ilahabad became a centre of both sufi devotion and philosophical discourse muhibbullah s intellectual project reflects the mature indo sufi attempt to reconcile the theological orthodoxy of the qur an with the metaphysical depth of ibn al ʿarabi s theosophy he authored several works most notably musallamus sabut sharḥʿayn al yaḳīn and risālah fī al wujūd all of which revolve around the ontology of being wujūd his writings mark a shift from ecstatic mystical expression toward a more rationalized scholastic sufism a trend that matured in mughal india alongside figures like ʿabd al ḥaqq muḥaddith dehlawi and mulla ʿabd al ḥakīm sialkoti musallamus sabut the meaning and magnificence the title musallamus sabut is roughly rendered as the soundly established proofs the treatise was written to affirm the ontological and rational soundness taḥqīq of the doctrine of wahdat al wujūd that all existence is a manifestation of the one reality al ḥaqq and that multiplicity has no independent being while ibn al ʿarabi had expounded this doctrine primarily through mystical intuition muhibbullah sought to ground it in philosophical reasoning and qur anic exegesis thus musallamus sabut stands as a defense of mystical monism against the charges of pantheism levelled by certain orthodox scholars of his time especially those aligned with the naqshbandi mujaddidi school who promoted wahdat al shuhūd unity of witnessing as an alternative to wahdat al wujūd the oneness of existence the text presents a systematic exposition of the doctrine of unity tawḥīd with rational and scriptural arguments defending the mystical view of wahdat al wujūd musallamus sabut waw lately part of the madrasas curriculum called dars e nizami it had become an important text in indo muslim metaphysical discourse especially among sufis and scholars defending wahdat al wujūd against the reformist critiques of the 17th 18th centuries it influenced later indian thinkers such as shah waliullah dehlawi who engaged deeply with the same metaphysical ideas the book s arguments were also cited by scholars like ʿabd al ḥaqq muḥaddith dehlawi and ʿabd al ra ūf al muniri in their sufi writings main themes and doctrines 1 unity of being wahdat al wujūd muhibbullah defends ibn al ʿarabi s view that all multiplicity emanates from a single divine reality not as pantheism but as theophany manifestation of god s names and attributes 2 relationship between the creator and creation he uses philosophical terminology to explain that existence wujūd truly belongs only to allah all other beings are reflections of that absolute existence 3 refutation of dualism and anthropomorphism the book argues against the literalist and dualist interpretations of god s attributes offering instead a sufi metaphysical reading of qur anic verses 4 proofs and rational demonstrations as the title suggests the treatise uses rational proofs burhan to establish the mystical truths bridging the gap between philosophy falsafa and sufism tasawwuf 5 ontological argument the real as the only existence everything upon it the earth will perish and there will remain only the face of your lord qur an 55 26 27 from this he concludes that all contingent beings mumkināt are dependent upon the necessary being wājib al wujūd dependence implies non reality in themselves their existence is nothing but the self disclosure tajallī of the real being he writes the real al ḥaqq is being itself all else is his shadow ẓill and reflection were the light of the real withdrawn nothing of the cosmos would remain perceptible this analogy light and shadow is central to his argument multiplicity exists only as the mode of manifestation not as a separate ontological principle hence creation is not other than god but rather god s own appearance in diverse forms the epistemology of being seeing unity in multiplicity shaykh muhibbullah bihari devotes considerable attention to how human knowledge perceives existence drawing upon the qur anic verse whithersoever you turn there is the face of allah 2 115 he asserts that all perception whether sensory or intellectual is in truth a perception of the one being manifesting through finite forms he distinguishes between conceptual multiplicity taʿaddud dhihnī which arises from mental abstraction and ontological unity waḥdat wujūdī which pertains to the real itself the world therefore is not an illusion maya in the sense of complete unreality but a relative reality ḥaqīqat iḍāfiyyah whose being is entirely dependent upon the divine being this subtle distinction shows how muhibbullah engages indian philosophical ideas indirectly while maintaining qur anic monotheism rational proofs burāhīn for unity of being the treatise presents three levels of argumentation metaphysical proof every possible being mumkin al wujūd cannot exist by itself it requires a necessary being wājib al wujūd therefore contingent beings have no independent reality only the necessary being truly is epistemological proof perception and cognition relate only to being not to non being hence all knowledge implicitly affirms the one existence that underlies phenomena scriptural proof verses such as he is the first and the last the outward and the inward 57 3 and there is nothing like unto him 42 11 are interpreted as expressing not distance but the all comprehensive nature of divine being by combining these proofs muhibbullah establishes that wahdat al wujūd is not merely a mystical intuition but a rationally demonstrable truth consonant with revelation refuting dualism and anthropomorphism muhibbullah critiques those theologians who posit a strict creator creation duality accusing them of falling into subtle anthropomorphism he argues that to imagine god as separate from the world spatially or temporally is to limit his infinitude he writes the multiplicity of beings does not negate unity for their plurality lies in form sūrah not in essence dhāt whoever sees multiplicity has seen only the veils of manifestation not the light itself this statement is not pantheistic but panentheistic the world is in god but god transcends the world the tajallī doctrine allows him to preserve both transcendence tanzīh and immanence tashbih the doctrine of tajallī divine self manifestation central to musallamus sabut is the notion of tajallī divine self disclosure all created beings are loci maẓāhir through which the names and attributes of god appear this idea derived from ibn al ʿarabi and ʿabd al karīm al jīlī is developed by muhibbullah with logical precision he explains the cosmos is a mirror reflecting the names of allah each being reveals a particular aspect of divine perfection the human being insān kāmil is the comprehensive manifestation containing all attributes in potential or actual form through tajallī god knows himself in multiplicity yet remains the one reality beyond all forms the human being and ethical implications for muhibbullah metaphysical knowledge must culminate in ethical and spiritual transformation realizing the unity of being leads to 1 humility since the self has no independent existence 2 compassion as every creature manifests the divine presence 3 iḥsān spiritual excellence to worship god as if one sees him in all things he thus translates metaphysical insight into practical mysticism grounding sufi ethics in ontological monism to perceive unity is to embody mercy to see god in all is to love all legacy and influence muhibbullah bihari s thought profoundly influenced the trajectory of indian sufism his musallamus sabut served as a philosophical counterweight to the naqshbandi mujaddidi emphasis on wahdat al shuhūd advocated by shaykh ahmad sirhindi later thinkers like shah waliullah dehlawi acknowledged both positions seeking a synthesis between wujud and shuhūd even in the 18th and 19th centuries sufis such as ʿabd al ra ūf al muniri and ʿabd al ḥaqq dehlawi referred to muhibbullah s formulations as examples of sound metaphysical reasoning in defence of the people of unveiling ahl al kashf while musallamus sabut remains largely unpublished manuscripts are preserved in the raza library rampur aligarh muslim university and salar jung museum hyderabad it awaits modern critical editing and translation conclusion the radiance of oneness shaykh muhibbullah bihari s musallamus sabut represents the culmination of indo sufi metaphysical thought it harmonizes revelation reason and mystical experience into a single vision of being by affirming that there is nothing in existence but the one existence and all else is his shadow muhibbullah does not dissolve the distinction between creator and creation rather he reveals their intimate unity in dependence and manifestation his vision remains deeply qur anic the world is not god but it is nothing without god through the luminous reasoning of musallamus sabut we glimpse how the indian sufis transformed abstract metaphysics into a living spirituality one that sees divine beauty in every atom of creation references s a a rizvi a history of sufism in india vol ii new delhi munshiram manoharlal 1983 197 205 syed hasan askari the metaphysical thought of muhibbullah bihari islamic culture 43 no 3 1969 179 191 a k a qadiri sufi thought in the indian subcontinent lahore ferozsons 1996 112 121 ibn al ʿarabi fuṣūṣ al ḥikam ed a afifi beirut dar al kitab al ʿarabi 1946 ʿabd al karīm al jīlī al insān al kāmil fī maʿrifat al awākhir wa l awāʾil cairo al maktaba al tijāriyya al kubrā 1929 shah waliullah dehlawi tafhīmāt i ilāhiyyah ed g n jalbani hyderabad dāʾirah al maʿārif al ʿuthmāniyya 1970 a h sheriff philosophical dimensions of indian sufism journal of islamic studies 12 no 2 2001 213 231 regular columnist with newageislam com ghulam rasool dehlvi is an indo islamic scholar sufi writer and author of ishq sufiyana untold stories of divine love url https www newageislam com books documents muhibbullah musallamus sabut wahdat wujud non duality d 137342 new age islam islam online islamic website african muslim news arab world news south asia news indian muslim news world muslim news women in islam islamic feminism arab women women in arab islamophobia in america muslim women in west islam women and feminism posted by moderate islamist here at 8 52 am no comments email this blogthis share to x share to facebook share to pinterest maulana abul kalam azad s perspective on the unity of religions part two by dr zafar darik qasmi new age islam 22 october 2025 abstract maulana abul kalam azad believed that all religions share one divine truth in the beginning humanity was united but as people grew and societies expanded differences and injustice arose god then sent prophets to guide people towards truth and justice according to azad divine guidance was universal sent to every nation and era the real religion din is the same everywhere belief in one god and righteous living differences among religions exist only in outward laws rituals and customs shari ah not in essence these differences came due to time place and culture therefore followers should not fight over forms because the spirit of all faiths is one main points 1 all religions teach one god and moral righteous living 2 prophets were sent everywhere for human guidance and peace 3 true religion never changes only rituals and customs differ 4 differences are in practice not in real divine truth 5 unity of faith brings harmony equality and mutual respect today it is being strongly argued that all religions are in fact one the ways of worship and the names used for god may differ but the essence remains the same this means that if anyone follows the teachings and traditions of any faith it should not be considered wrong because in some way every person is connected to the creator this idea is known as the unity of religions the philosophy of the unity of religions is one of the important topics of the modern age maulana abul kalam azad discussed it in detail in his famous commentary tarjuman al qur an therefore before presenting my own views i find it necessary to first explain maulana azad s opinion on this subject maulana azad writes that in the beginning there was no difference among human beings all people followed the same path explaining why differences arose among humankind he says in the beginning human society lived a natural life there were no disputes no conflicts all people lived in harmony and were content with their natural unity but as the human race increased and economic and social needs expanded various differences appeared these differences turned into divisions conflicts and oppression each group began to hate the other and the powerful started to violate the rights of the weak when this situation developed divine revelation became necessary to guide humanity and to establish truth and justice thus the light of revelation appeared and the series of god s messengers began these guides were called rasul because they delivered the message of divine truth tarjuman al qur an pp 352 353 when the needs and demands of human life increased conflicts arose between nations and societies the teachings of justice equality and fairness were ignored and oppression and cruelty spread to guide humanity and to establish justice on earth the almighty sent prophets according to maulana azad prophets were sent for the guidance of all mankind not for any particular nation or group he writes this guidance was not limited to any specific country nation or perio...
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