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d lateral longitudinal arches the functional anatomy of the arches allows the foot to remain stable during the pressures and energy exertion of locomotion but also retain flexibility so that it can grip different surfaces whilst enhancing forward propulsion gosing et al 2008 309 the transverse arch is located along the cuneiforms the cuboid bone and all of the metatarsal bases and simply forms a domed shaped which strengthens the foot during locomotion the medial longitudinal arch is the highest of the arches and runs along the instep of the foot alongside the calcaneus talus navicular and cuneiform bones and up to the first three metatarsals gosling et al 2008 309 the lateral longitudinal arch is lower and flatter than the media arch and runs alongside the calcaneus the cuboid and the fourth and fifth metatarsals gosling et al 2008 2010 the arches are supported in their skeletal frame by a complex arrangement of extrinsic and intrinsic muscles ligaments and tendons the sole of the foot contains numerous intrinsic muscles which mimic the muscles found in the hand which include digitorum flexor abductor and lumbrical muscles whilst the plantar view houses the inter osseus planar muscles gosling et al 2008 284 it is worth remembering that the majority of the larger muscles that articulate and move the foot are located in the leg itself soleus gastrocnemius and the anterior posterior tibial muscles although i will not discuss the soft tissues further i highly recommend the human anatomy colour atlas and textbook by gosling et al 2008 as a key reference source the book has a high number of quality dissection photographs and anatomical diagrams clearly highlighting the different muscle ligament and tendon structures skeletal elements tarsals the 7 tarsal bones of the foot help to form the longitudinal and transverse arches of the foot which is often called the tarsus the talus articulates superiorly with the distal tibia and fibula the calcaneus forms the heel of the foot and supports the talus white folkens 2005 291 the navicular sites between the 3 cuneiforms and the head of the talus white folkens 2005 292 the 3 cuneiforms and the cuboid act as a second row of tarsal bones and articulate with the proximal heads of the 5 metatarsals dorsal view of the tarsal elements and proximal metatarsals image credit university of cincinnati the talus the talus astragalus in animals is the 2nd largest tarsal and sits atop of the calcaneus between the tibia and the fibula it is distinct in it s saddle shape with a head that sides medially when viewed from above and a body that forms the posterior portion of the bone the calcaneus the largest tarsal forming the heel bone the calcaneus is located inferior of the talus and supports the distal portion of the foot an intact calcaneus is extremely distinct and can be sided by placing the heel away from you and the articular surfaces superiorly and the shelf sustentaculum tali should point the side it is from the cuboid the cuboid is located on the lateral side of the foot between the calcaneus and the 4th and 5th metatarsals it is distinct in appearance because of its large size with a cuboidal body there is no articular surface on the lateral side of the bone and the inferior surface has a pronounced cuboid tuberosity the naviculuar the navicular sits snugly between the talus and the cuneiform elements and has a distinct concave proximal surface a tubercle points medially when viewed from the view of the talus it is similar in shape to the scaphoid carpal the cuneiforms medial the medial cuneiform is the largest of the three cuneiforms sitting between the navicular and base of the first metatarsal it is less of a wedge shape than the other two cuneiforms and distinguished by it s kidney shaped facet for the base of the first metatarsal white folkens 2005 298 intermediate this cuneiform is the smallest of the cuneiforms and is located between navicular and the 2nd metatarsal base it articulates on either side with the lateral and medial cuneiforms the non articular dorsal surface is key for siding with a projecting surface points towards the side it comes from when the concave facet is pointed away from the holder white folkens 2005 298 lateral located at the centre of the foot and intermediate in size between the intermediate and medial cuneiform the lateral cuneiform sits at the base of the foot it articulates distally with the 2nd 3rd and fourth metatarsal bases proximally with the navicular medially with the intermediate cuneiform and laterally the cuboid white folkens 2005 299 metatarsals the 5 rays of the metatarsals are typically labelled as mt 1 5 with mt1 representing the hallux or the big toe as the thumb is named the pollex the metatarsals are all tubular bones with rounded distal articular facets heads and more squarish proximal ends bases white folkens 2005 300 they are more easily sided by the morphology of their bases it is important to note that each of the tarsals in the distal row either of the 3 cuneiforms or the cuboid above articulates with one or more of the metatarsal bases white folkens 2005 300 the first metatarsal is the most massive and squat whilst all non hallucial metatarsals articulate with each other the fifth metatarsal bears a distinctive blunt styloid process on it s lateral side that makes it fairly identifiable a basic dorsal view of the metatarsal and phalangeal bones in the right foot note that the hallux first digit medially has only a proximal and a distal phalanx whilst the other digits have a proximal intermediate and distal phalanx source phalanges the foot phalanges are the same in design as the hand phalanges with heads bases and shafts but are much shorter and squatter than the hand phalanges again they come in three rows with 5 proximal phalanges 4 intermediate phalanges and 5 distal phalanges it should be noted that the mt1 hallux has as does the thumb pollex only the proximal and distal phalanges with no intermediate phalanx and is remarkably more chunkier then either of the other four rays each proximal phalanx displays a single concave proximal facet for the metatarsal head and a spool shaped surface distally white folkens 2005 306 each i ntermediate phalanx displays a double proximal articular facet for the head of the proximal phalanx and again have a trochlea shaped distal articular facet white folkens 2005 306 each distal phalanx displays a double articular proximal facet for the head of the intermediate phalanx and a terminal tip of the bone resulting in a non articular pad white folkens 2005 307 these phalanges are all much shorter than their companions in the hand with the foot phalanges having a more circular shaft cross section compared to the d shape shaft of the hand phalanges foot phalanges generally display a more constrictive shaft than hand phalanges although it can be difficult to side them and it is best done with a full replica or whole specimens for comparative analysis white folkens 2005 308 further online sources a detailed map of each element and the surrounding musculature as well as relaxing classical music can be found on the website of the umft department of anatomy and embryology site be aware there are detailed anatomical prosection and dissection diagrams but it is a free fascinating and wonderful source and with the music especially relaxing a number of websites have detailed diagrams and photographs of the foot from a medial lateral and a dorsal planar view including this site and this one finally do you know your tarsal bones test yourself here bibliography brothwell d r 1981 digging up bones the excavation treatment and study of human skeletal remains ithica cornell university press d août k pataky t c de clercq d aerts p 2009 the effects of habitual footwear use foot shape and function in native barefoot walkers footwear science 1 2 81 doi 10 1080 19424280903386411 d août k meert l van gheluwe b de clercq d aerts p 2010 experimentally generated footprints in sand analysis and consequences for the interpretation of fossil and forensic footprints american journal of physical anthropology 141 515 525 doi 10 1002 ajpa 21169 gosling j a harris p f humpherson j r whitmore i willan p l t 2008 human anatomy color atlas and text book philadelphia mosby elsevier jarmey c 2003 the concise book of muscles chichester lotus publishing jurmain r kilgore l trevathan w 2011 essentials of physical anthropology international edition london wadworth larsen c 1997 bioarchaeology interpreting behaviour from the human skeleton cambridge cambridge university press marsland d kapoor s 2008 rheumatology and orthopaedics london mosby elsevier mays s 1999 the archaeology of human bones glasgow bell bain ltd white t folkens p 2005 the human bone manual london elsevier academic press tags foot bones pes skeletal series comments 11 comments categories anatomical terms anatomy archaeology bioarchaeology biology biomechanics bone basics calcaneus cuboid cuneiforms foot anatomy human osteology intermediate cuneiform lateral cuneiform medial cuneiform medical anthropology metatarsals muscles musculoskeletal system navicular osteology phalanges physical anthropology skeletal series talus tarsals skeletal series part 8 the human hand 17 jul common names for fingers of the hand to my mind the human hand is a real marker of humanity alongside the anatomy of the foot the human hand is especially designed for certain actions whereas the foot has changed to accommodate long distance bipedal walking the human hand has developed to be extremely sensitive with dexterous movement the mammalian order of the primates are the only animals with true hands with humans chimps and apes having two opposable thumbs and great gripping potential jurmain et al 2010 as the modified end to the ancestral fish fin the human hand has retained the 5 original number of digits whilst a variety of animals have gone through reduction and modification in the number of their digits e g horses bats pigs white folkens 2005 225 the sense of touch is anchored in and from the hand excavation as ever careful excavation of the burial should take place when necessary the small bones located in the human hand can be hard to spot especially distal phalanges as they tend to be very small see diagram it is likely that most of the metacarpals and the larger phalanges will probably survive however to spot the carpals care is needed as these can often look like stones it can be very difficult to imagine how the bones would look in articulation during excavation and as such all material should be saved for closer inspection rather then losing valuable information larsen 1997 a key note is to know that the hand bones will often be spread over a wider area unlike the foot bones on excavation in the summer of 2011 in germany i realised firsthand how spread out they could be with the phalanges of one supine burial found next to the leg bones spread over the hip with some lingering inside the chest cavity the bones were all over hand anatomy and elements overall there are 27 bones present in the hand the bones in the hand are typically classed into three groups the carpals metacarpals the proximal intermediate distal phalanges the thumb is often called the pollex whilst each finger is usually referred to as a ray starting on the index finger as discussed previously the carpals articulate with the distal ends of the ulna radius white folkens 2005 classification of the bones in the human hand it is an interesting fact that most of the bones in the human body come from the hands and the feet as such have both a large number of phalanges as outlined above and discussed below the carpals contain 8 bones the m etacarpals 5 bones the proximal phalanges 5 bones the intermediate 4 bones the distal phalanges 5 bones the hand is used for both gross motor skills and fine motor skills with the fingertips containing some of the densest bundles of nerves wikipedia 2011 interesting the hand can reach almost anywhere on the persons body discounting a small patch on the back and the elbow and lower arm the hand is located on name of each individual element and the anatomical position in comparison with x ray of a human hand carpals 8 elements the carpals make up the wrist and are positioned as two tiers of four bones each of the bones have a characteristic shape and recognizing the shapes in diagnosis of the separate carpal bones the first proximal row consists of from right to left in a right hand the scaphoid lunate triquetral the pisiform bones the second distal row consists of the trapezium trapezoid capitate and the hamate bones white folken 2005 288 233 i advise you to click on the wikipedia links to see each element by itself as it would take too much space up here carpals in articulation scaphoid the scaphoid bone is shaped like a boat and is one of the largest carpal bones it is the most lateral and proximal carpal bones with a both a major concave and convex surface for the articulation with the head of the hamate and the articulation surface of the distal radius lunate the lunate takes the form of a crescent moon its deeply concave surface articulates with the capitate whilst articular point opposite shares the distal radius with the scaphoid surface triquetral the triquetral is the third bone in the carpal row and its main distinguishing feature is the three articular surfaces pisiform the pisiform is a pea shaped bone and the smallest of the carpal bones it actually develops inside a tendon and as such does not articulate with any other bone directly trapezium the trapezium is an irregularly shaped bone of medium size and is most distinguished by the largest facet and saddle shaped articular surface for the base of the first metacarpal trapezoid the trapezoid bone is boot shaped and it is the smallest bone in the distal row it articulates distally with the second metacarpal white folkens 2005 231 capitate the capitate is a larger carpal bone that articulates distally with the metacarpal 3 2 and sometimes 4 the end is squared off whilst the proximal end is rounded hamate the hamate is the carpal bone which has the hook shaped non articular projection called the hamulus this is a key aid in the diagnosing the hamate carpal the hamulus is the fourth attachment point for the flexor retinaculum metacarpals 5 elements the metacarpals are numbered from mc1 thumb to mc 5 little finger as white folkens discuss 2005 233 the metacarpals are all tubular bones with rounded distal articular heads with the more rectangular proximal ends as such they are most easily identified and sided by the morphology of the bases metacarpals of the human hand in articulation where 1 represents the pollux metacarpal i the first metacarpal is the shortest broadest more robust of the five the singular proximal articular surface is saddle shape which corresponds to the fact on the trapezium white folkens 2005 236 here after f...
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