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local practices codes standards best practices and fire regulations will determine actual materials and methods the engineering of underfloor cooling and heating systems is governed by industry standards and guidelines 60 61 notes 2 technical design edit the amount of heat exchanged from or to an underfloor system is based on the combined radiant and convective heat transfer coefficients radiant heat transfer is constant based on the stefan boltzmann constant convective heat transfer changes over time depending on the air s density and thus its buoyancy air buoyancy changes according to surface temperatures and forced air movement due to fans and the motion of people and objects in the space convective heat transfer with underfloor systems is much greater when the system is operating in a heating rather than cooling mode 62 typically with underfloor heating the convective component is almost 50 of the total heat transfer and in underfloor cooling the convective component is less than 10 63 heat and moisture considerations edit when heated and cooled pipes or heating cables share the same spaces as other building components parasitic heat transfer can occur between refrigeration appliances cold storage areas domestic cold water lines air conditioning and ventilation ducts to control this the pipes cables and other building components must all be well insulated with underfloor cooling condensation may collect on the surface of the floor to prevent this air humidity is kept low below 50 and floor temperatures are maintained above the dew point 19 c 66f 64 building systems and materials edit heat losses to below grade the thermal conductivity of soil will influence the conductive heat transfer between the ground and heated or cooled slab on grade floors soils with moisture contents greater than 20 can be as much as 15 times more conductive than soils with less than 4 moisture content 65 water tables and general soil conditions should be evaluated suitable underslab insulation such as rigid extruded or expanded polystyrene is required by model national energy codes 66 67 heat losses at the exterior floor framing the heated or cooled sub floor increases the temperature difference between the outdoors and the conditioned floor the cavities created by the framing timbers such as headers trimmers and cantilevered sections must then be insulated with rigid batt or spray type insulations of suitable value based on climate and building techniques masonry and other hard flooring considerations concrete floors must accommodate shrinkage and expansion due to curing and changes in temperature curing times and temperatures for poured floors concrete lightweight toppings must follow industry standards control and expansion joints and crack suppression techniques are required for all masonry type floors including tile slate terrazzo stone marble concrete stained textured and stamped wood flooring the dimensional stability of wood is based primary on moisture content 68 however other factors can mitigate the changes to wood as it is heated or cooled including wood species milling techniques quarter sawn or plane sawn acclimation period relative humidity within the space piping standards notes 3 control system edit see also hydronics underfloor heating and cooling systems can have several control points including the management of fluid temperatures in the heating and cooling plant e g boilers chillers heat pumps influences the efficiency fluid temperatures in distribution network between the plant and the radiant manifolds influences the capital and operating costs fluid temperatures in the pe x piping systems which is based on 28 heating and cooling demands tube spacing upward and downward losses flooring characteristics operative temperature incorporates the mean radiant and dry bulb surface temperatures for 69 comfort health and safety material integrity dew point for floor cooling mechanical schematic edit example of a radiant based hvac schematic illustrated is a simplified mechanical schematic of an underfloor heating and cooling system for thermal comfort quality 69 with a separate air handling system for indoor air quality 70 71 in high performance residential homes of moderate size e g under 3000 ft 2 278 m 2 total conditioned floor area this system using manufactured hydronic control appliances would take up about the same space as a three or four piece bathroom modeling piping patterns with finite element analysis edit modeling radiant piping also tube or loop patterns with finite element analysis fea predicts the thermal diffusions and surface temperature quality or efficacy of various loop layouts the performance of the model left image below and image to the right are useful to gain an understanding in relationships between flooring resistances conductivities of surrounding mass tube spacings depths and fluid temperatures as with all fea simulations they depict a snap shot in time for a specific assembly and may not be representative of all floor assemblies nor for system that have been operative for considerable time in a steady state condition the practical application of fea for the engineer is being able to assess each design for fluid temperature back losses and surface temperature quality through several iterations it is possible to optimize the design for the lowest fluid temperature in heating and the highest fluid temperature in cooling which enables combustion and compression equipment to achieve its maximum rated efficiency performance thermal diffusions and surface temperature quality efficacy of various piping layouts typical fea output screen shots of wire mesh thermal isotherms and color coded mapping economics edit there is a wide range of pricing for underfloor systems based on regional differences materials application and project complexity it is widely adopted in the nordic asian and european communities consequently the market is more mature and systems relatively more affordable than less developed markets such as north america where market share for fluid based systems remains between 3 and 7 of hvac systems ref statistics canada and united states census bureau in energy efficiency buildings such as passive house r 2000 or net zero energy simple thermostatic radiator valves can be installed along with a single compact circulator and small condensing heater controlled without or with basic hot water reset 72 control economical electric resistance based systems also are useful in small zones such as bathrooms and kitchens but also for entire buildings where heating loads are very low larger structures will need more sophisticated systems to deal with cooling and heating needs and often require building management control systems to regulate the energy use and control the overall indoor environment low temperature radiant heating and high temperature radiant cooling systems lend themselves well to district energy systems community based systems due to the temperature differentials between the plant and the buildings which allow small diameter insulated distribution networks and low pumping power requirements the low return temperatures in heating and high return temperatures in cooling enable the district energy plant to achieve maximum efficiency the principles behind district energy with underfloor systems can also be applied to stand alone multi story buildings with the same benefits 73 additionally underfloor radiant systems are ideally suited to renewable energy sources including geothermal and solar thermal systems or any system where waste heat is recoverable in the global drive for sustainability long term economics supports the need to eliminate where possible compression for cooling and combustion for heating it will then be necessary to use low quality heat sources for which radiant underfloor heating and cooling is well suited clarification needed citation needed system efficiency edit system efficiency and energy use analysis takes into account building enclosure performance efficiency of the heating and cooling plant system controls and the conductivities surface characteristics tube element spacing and depth of the radiant panel operating fluid temperatures and wire to water efficiency of the circulators 74 the efficiency in electric systems is analyzed by similar processes and includes the efficiency of electricity generation though the efficiency of radiant systems is under constant debate with no shortage of anecdotal claims and scientific papers presenting both sides the low return fluid temperatures in heating and high return fluid temperatures in cooling enable condensing boilers 75 chillers 76 and heat pumps 77 to operate at or near their maximum engineered performance 78 79 the greater efficiency of wire to water versus wire to air flow due to water s significantly greater heat capacity favors fluid based systems over air based systems 80 both field application and simulation research have demonstrated significant electrical energy savings with radiant cooling and dedicated outdoor air systems based in part on the previous noted principles 81 82 in passive houses r 2000 homes or net zero energy buildings the low temperatures of radiant heating and cooling systems present significant opportunities to exploit exergy 83 in residential underfloor heating ufh systems the material of the manifold plays a crucial role in thermal performance and durability nickel plated brass manifolds are widely used due to higher thermal conductivity and improved corrosion resistance compared to stainless steel alternatives research from industry bodies indicates that nickel plated brass manifolds can enhance system efficiency and longevity in ufh applications 84 85 efficiency considerations for flooring surface materials edit system efficiency is also affected by the floor covering serving as the radiational boundary layer between the floor mass and occupants and other contents of the conditioned space for example carpeting has a greater resistance or lower conductance than tile thus carpeted floors need to operate at higher internal temperatures than tile which can create lower efficiencies for boilers and heat pumps however when the floor covering is known at the time the system is installed then the internal floor temperature required for a given covering can be achieved through proper tube spacing without sacrificing plant efficiency though the higher internal floor temperatures may result in increased heat loss from the non room surfaces of the floor 86 the emissivity reflectivity and absorptivity of a floor surface are critical determinants of its heat exchange with the occupants and room unpolished flooring surface materials and treatments have very high emissivity s 0 85 to 0 95 and therefore make good heat radiators 87 with underfloor heating and cooling reversible floors flooring surfaces with high absorbance and emissivity and low reflectivity are most desirable thermographic evaluation edit thermographic images of a room heated with low temperature radiant heating shortly after starting up the system thermography is a useful tool to see the actual thermal efficacy of an underfloor system from its start up as shown to its operating conditions in a startup it is easy to identify the tube location but less so as the system moves into a steady state condition it is important to interpret thermographic images correctly as is the case with finite element analysis fea what is seen reflects the conditions at the time of the image and may not represent the steady conditions for example the surfaces viewed in the images shown may appear hot but in reality are actually below the nominal temperature of the skin and core temperatures of the human body and the ability to see the pipes does not equate to feel the pipes thermography can also point out flaws in the building enclosures left image corner intersection detail thermal bridging right image studs and the heat losses associated with exterior doors center image global examples of large modern buildings using radiant heating and cooling edit 41 cooper square united states akron art museum united states bmw welt germany california academy of sciences united states copenhagen opera house denmark ewha womans university south korea hearst tower new york city united states manitoba hydro place canada national renewable energy laboratory research support facility united states pearl river tower china post tower germany suvarnabhumi airport 88 bangkok see also edit wikimedia commons has media related to underfloor heating american society of heating refrigerating and air conditioning engineers electric heating heat recovery ventilation hydronics gloria heating system heater types of heaters hypocaust kang bed stove psychrometrics ondol renewable heat underfloor air distribution references edit 1 2 bean r olesen b kim k w history of radiant heating and cooling systems ashrae 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malbork pl high commission for erbil citadel revitalization the hammam erbilcitadel org archived from the original on 2009 07 05 gallo e jean simon bonnemain 1743 1830 and the origins of hot water central heating 2nd international congress on construction history queens college cambridge uk edited by the construction history society 2006 bruegmann r central heating and forced ventilation origins and effects on architectural design jsah vol 37 no 3 october 1978 the medical and surgical history of the war of the rebellion part iii volume ii surgical history 1883 science at a distance www brooklyn cuny edu panel heating structural paper no 19 oscar faber o b e d c l hon d sc eng the institution of civil engineers may 1947 pp 16 pex association the history and influence of pex pipe on indoor environmental quality archived copy pdf archived from the original on 2010 11 28 retrieved 2010 11 28 cite web cs1 maint archived copy as title link bjorksten test new plastic heating tubes june 7 1951 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