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y with her husband in his research and writing including assisting in editing john s encyclopedia of gardening jane saw that there was a need for gardening manuals aimed at the growning market of middle class women and began a series of guides including gardening for ladies and the ladies companion to the flower garden probably the most famous of her output were the ladies flower garden books which were both decorative and educational jane had taught herself to draw and these books were illustrated with her designs beautifully rendered in hand colored lithographs these prints are well known in today s market but the story of their remarkable creator is undeservedly less well known posted by chris lane at 3 17 pm 2 comments labels print makers women print map makers wednesday february 23 2022 four great surveys of the american west after the louisiana purchase the u s government was interested in trying to get a basic understanding of what was in the vast new lands the country had acquired towards that end the government sent out a number of surveys in the early nineteenth century these included the lewis clark expedition of 1803 1806 zebulon pike s of 1806 07 and that of stephen h long in 1819 20 the long expedition ended the official exploration of the west for about two decades until finally in 1838 the u s army established the corps of topographical engineers the purview of which included exploring and mapping the west among the most important of their surveys were the five expeditions led by john c frémont between 1842 and 1853 after mid century exploration of the west picked up significantly when in 1853 congress authorized 150 000 for the exploration of possible railroad routes across the continent creating the pacific railroad surveys to investigate possible routes across the west at four different latitudes the results of these surveys were depicted in g k warren s important map of the territory of the united states from mississippi to the pacific ocean which summed up the government s understanding of the west on the eve of the civil war after the civil war the nation turned its attention even more to the american west which was seen as an area of huge potential economic development this led to a demand for better information on the region a demand that was partially met by the general land office the glo was responsible for the surveying platting and sale of public lands so while their surveys were very important for the economic development of the west there were large sections of the region they did not cover the federal government was particularly interested in the economic resources of the west which had not been a focus of the earlier military surveys thus the government modified its surveys so that were more scientific rather than military these were called geological surveys geology at the time having a wider definition than now referring broadly to the science of the earth including within its compass botany soil science archaeology and anthropology the first government survey dedicated to studying the geological and thus economic aspects of a far western state was the 1860 74 california geological survey led by josiah d whitney this survey is important for several reasons not the least of which was the new procedure for surveying alpine landscapes developed by its lead topographer charles frederick hoffmann the california geological survey established the methods and aims for future surveys by the u s government which in 1867 authorized the first in a series of systematic scientific surveys of the west these became known as the four great surveys which ran pretty much concurrently and lasted until 1879 king survey 1867 73 the first of these surveys authorized on march 2 1867 was the u s geological exploration of the 40th parallel led by clarence king who had worked on with the california geological survey the purview of the king party was to survey the lands on either side of the pacific railroad from california to eastern wyoming and it was designed primarily as a practical survey to determine the economic potential of the lands along the railroad route the king survey resulted in the publication of a geological and topographical atlas in 1876 this included a general map then five each of topographical and geological sectional maps in sequence along the route of king s survey the maps were done in very large size most sheets measure 29 x 42 these are rare and fascinating images of the western part of the lands on either side of the 40th parallel hayden survey 1867 79 the second of the great surveys began the same year as the king survey this was led by ferdinand v hayden and though it started off focused on nebraska within two years it became the u s geological and geographical survey of the territories hayden s survey eventually encompassed parts of nebraska wyoming idaho montana and particularly colorado hayden issued yearly reports and these standardly include illustrations as well as maps of the different areas he surveyed the most impressive of his cartographic publications was the 1877 geological and geographical atlas of colorado which included four general maps of the entire state as well as topographical and geological maps of the state broken into six sections these provide the first comprehensive and accurate mapping of the colorado just a year after statehood powell survey 1870 78 the third of the four great surveys was the u s geographical and geological survey of the rocky mountain region led by john wesley powell a survey which lasted from 1870 to 1878 powell had become convinced that the colorado river canyons could be explored only by boat so in 1869 powell formed a private expedition and set off down the green and colorado rivers the expedition members are the first known euro americans to traverse the grand canyon as the 1869 expedition ended up being more about survival than science and as much of the data he had gathered was lost powell asked congress to authorize another exploration of the grand canyon this congress did with the creation of the third of the great surveys the scope of which was not only the grand canyon but also the surrounding plateau lands powell was involved in the production of a number of maps some of which appeared in reports from this survey but there was no major cartographic publication which resulted wheeler survey 1872 79 the last of the four great surveys was under the command of lieutenant george montague wheeler wheeler had led surveys in eastern nevada and arizona in 1869 these were under the aegis of the u s army s corps of engineers and the surveys had primarily military objectives by 1870 with the creation of the other three essentially civilian surveys the military became concerned that the job of mapping the american west was being taken away from them wheeler came up with the idea of having the army survey the entire country west of the 100th meridian the army bought into this concept and convinced congress that this was a good idea so in 1872 money was appropriated to form the u s geographical survey west of the 100th meridian wheeler was never able to complete his work though he did map a large portion of the west by the end of 1879 covering about 360 000 square miles though that was only about on quarter of the area originally intended beginning in 1876 wheeler issued a number of maps along with a title page for a topographical atlas the idea was that wheeler would issue maps as the survey progressed with the sheets eventually all gathered into this atlas this did not happen the intended atlas was never completed over the years however wheeler did continue to produce maps most sheets showing one quarter of one of his 95 quadrangles each year wheeler also produced a progress map illustrating the areas that had been surveyed wheeler stopped surveying in 1879 but continued to issue reports and maps until 1884 in the end wheeler produced 71 topographical maps initially he was criticized for not showing enough information about the natural resources of the areas mapped so wheeler started to add economic or land use maps as well as some geological maps craig haggit of the denver public library has produced a very nice web page about the wheeler maps which can be seen by clicking on this link competition between the surveys it is not really surprising that right from the beginning there was competition between the four great surveys as they ran pretty much concurrently and covered overlapping areas of the west there was a conflict between the military and civilian surveys the military wanting to have authority over the western surveys and the scientific community wanting the same thing there was also conflict over getting money from congress as there were limited funds and each survey wanted to make sure they received sufficient appropriations finally there was conflict over the scope of each survey for instance at one point powell tried to extend his survey to encompass the entire rocky mountains but congress demurred saying the rockies belong to the hayden survey the most consequential of the conflicts was between hayden and wheeler whose territories did overlap this came to a head on july 9 1873 wheeler had sent a party under lieutenant w l marshall to survey south central colorado and at the same time hayden had sent one of his survey parties into the south park area which was just where marshall was working hayden describes what happened as we were riding down into the south park about the 9th day of july we came across lt marshall s party and we camped together he was a very courteous gentleman and we were very friendly we talked matters over and some regrets were expressed that we were on the same ground i simply stated to him that i had no option but to perform this work and we had had the territory of colorado assigned to us as a field of exploration he simply said that he was under orders and therefore could not disobey his orders as a result both parties set about surveying the same area in a ridiculous duplication of effort it was inevitable that this conflict would come to the attention of congress this happened when the war department demanded an investigation in hopes of asserting its authority through the wheeler survey over all the surveys of the west as a result the following year the townsend committee on public lands of the house of representatives met to consider the conflict one tack taken by the military was to attack hayden personally marshall accused hayden of rushing into the area specifically to preempt wheeler which may or may not be true also supposedly as reported by wheeler s geologist hayden was quoted as having said you can tell wheeler that if he stirs a finger or attempts to interfere with me or my survey in any way i will utterly crush him as i have enough congressional influence to do so and will bring it to bear despite these attacks wheeler and the military were for the most part on the defensive as the entire scientific community backed hayden wheeler s process and maps were assailed with hayden s worked stated as being much better however wheeler had the backing of president grant and in the end the congressional committee did nothing concluding that there is an abundance of work for the best talents of both the war and interior departments in the scientific questions of the western territories for many years to come still the committee did reprimand hayden and wheeler for ill judged and hasty expressions which good taste would have withheld the problems of having so many concurrent government surveys in much the same area persisted the concern over this was aggravated by the rising costs of the surveys so in the spring of 1878 the house committee on appropriations undertook to see if the surveys could be consolidated and condensed at this stage the king survey was already done but hayden powell and wheeler were all still in the field in the end congress decided that the general land office was to continue to survey public lands the coast and geodetic survey would continue to do first order triangulation of the whole country but a new u s geological survey was to assume all surveying mapping and geological investigations in the west as a result on march 3 1879 the u s geological survey was established replacing the remaining three great surveys and beginning a new chapter in the surveying of the american west posted by chris lane at 1 04 pm 2 comments labels mapmakers maps shaping the trans mississippi west monday february 7 2022 maria sibylla merian as the step granddaughter of johann theodor de bry and the daughter of the well known engraver matthaus merian the elder and then step daughter of botanical artist jacob marrel maria sibylla merian 1647 1717 was well suited to become one of the most notable natural history print makers of either sex known not only as an accomplished artist but also as a respected entomologist merian was the first to illustrate the full metamorphoses of many species of butterflies and moths but her 1699 1701 scientific expedition to south america is one of the most extraordinary stories from the early days of scientific exploration from an early age maria collected and drew images of insects taking the innovative approach of looking at the full lifecycle of her subjects after marrying johann andreas graff one of marrel s apprentices maria achieved success as a flower painter and engraver producing three books of flower prints between 1675 and 1680 her interest in entomology continued and between 1679 and 1683 she produced der raupen wunderbare verwandelung und sonderbare blumennahrung the caterpillar s wondrous metamorphosis and extraordinary nourishment from flowers which were well received then in 1685 merian converted to communistic sect of labadism and left her husband johann graff moving with her two daughters to the labadist colony in holland this was located in the castle of the governor of the dutch colony of surinam guiana whose cabinet of exotic butterflies sparked merian s imagination to the extent that in 1669 at the age of fifty two she set off with her youngest daughter dorothea to study the insects and flora of surinam after two years in the wilderness recording her observations of plants and the transformations of the native insects merian returned to europe where in 1705 she produced her important masterpiece metamorphosis insectorum surinamensium this magnificent work documented the insects of surinam in their full life cycles each shown with a native plant upon which it lived the plates blended entomological and botanical elements with an exquisite decorative appearance providing for europeans the first extensive visual record of the exotic colors and forms of the plant and insect life of south america documenting many of the subjects for the first time in 1712 merian began an expanded dutch edition of her earlier book on european insects but this wa...