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o be called north and south rhodesia modern day zimbabwe and zambia thus ruining portugal s plans to own one uninterrupted band of territory across africa prolonged negotiations about the frontiers of british and portuguese south africa began in april 1890 and continued until august 1891 when the borders of modern mozambique and angola were almost completely finalised p 93 failure to achieve their much trumpeted goal of creating a rose corridor across africa was perceived in portugal as a public humiliation and rocked the portuguese monarchy the early colony 1891 to 1919 you tend to think of the imperial nations as large and mighty powers engaged in fierce rivalry to gobble up even more third world countries it comes as a bracing surprise to learn that after its diplomats had fought hard to win these two huge new territories angola and mozambique they didn t know what to do with them they had developed coastal ports and trade networks up the rivers and licensed companies to develop some areas fertile highlands but most of the territory was undeveloped there were few roads even fewer railways much land remained in the hands of native rulers and some parts had never even been explored or mapped by white men moreover portugal was very poorly placed to take on such onerous responsibilities it had experienced not one but two civil wars earlier in the century and was currently the poorest and arguably the most backward country in europe people were leaving in droves newitt gives the striking statistic that between 1890 and 1920 some 750 000 portuguese emigrated to brazil while 170 000 went to america it s fascinating to learn that britain and germany signed not one but two secret treaties agreeing how they would carve up portugal s colonies if as most expected the country went bankrupt but portugal s solution to its challenge was to revert to a variation of the 17th century idea of leasing out land to individual landlords or businesses to develop on a much bigger scale the government now divided mozambique into half a dozen territories and leased them out to commercial companies to develop the result was very mixed the big story in this period was the importance of south africa the details are complicated but it became ever clearer to the portuguese authorities that its neighbour to the south was rich and getting richer due to the discovery of diamonds and gold so three things 1 south african mines needed miners and so a large number of blacks from southern mozambique became migrant workers in south africa and the government established a steady stream of income by taxing them 2 the portuguese built a railway from the transvaal into mozambique and to the deep water port at delagoa bay this became very commercially successful as the government raked off various taxes and fees 3 it was these very close economic connections with south africa which led the portuguese to move their administrative capital from mozambique island in the north right down to the settlement at delagoa bay named lourenço marques the capital s dependence on south africa it even got its power from sa was to have big implications for the future p 115 mozambique developed into a reserve of migrant labour for british south africa and south rhodesia while also serving as an outlet via the railway to the sea the mature colony 1919 to 1974 in 1910 portugal s tottering monarchy was overthrown in a revolution and replaced by a liberal republic pages 114 and 116 this promised all portugal s colonies greater autonomy though nothing like democracy even the whites had no say in how their colonies were run and the native population had no rights at all these plans had hardly got going before the first world war portugal joined on the allies side in 1916 and emerged heavily in britain s debt south africa s general smuts wanted to annex the entire delagoa bay railway and lourenço marques into his country in 1926 the liberal republic was overthrown in a coup after two years of uncertainty the authoritarian estado novo new state regime of antónio de oliveira salazar emerged in 1930 this published a colonial act declaring portugal and all its colonies one political entity the colonies were expected to balance their books without subsidies from the centre the crash of 1929 and the great depression confirmed salazar s regime in its theory of autarky i e a protectionist policy of trading among themselves which boiled down to the colonies supplied raw materials the metropole converted them to manufactured goods and sold them back so the colony was divided up into sugar cotton and rice growing areas the investment in farms the wages paid to natives the prices sold to middle men and onto importers all controlled and dictated from lisbon the second world war saw a spike in prices of raw commodities which greatly benefited portugal which carefully stayed neutral during the conflict using some of its profits portugal began to sketch out a network of health and education facilities across mozambique it was only in 1942 that the last of the business concessions dividing the country into separate entities came to an end and the country came under one unified government tax and business regime p 147 after much bureaucracy a comprehensive 5 year plan was published in 1953 with two more to follow in the 1960s schools hospitals more railways a huge dam across the river limpopo all populations grow at the first world war there were around 10 000 europeans in mozambique in 1945 31 000 by 1970 164 000 out of a population of 8 5 million half of these lived in the capital many as administrators independence movements ghana kicked off the rush to african independence in 1957 between 1958 and 1962 the salazar regime back in portugal experienced a crisis of support and vision a general stood in the presidential election against salazar s candidate and attracted a wide range of opposition movements in january 1961 a revolt broke out in angola in march india unilaterally seized goa a move which staggered the portuguese regime in june 1962 the various opposition groups in exile reluctantly agreed to come together to form frelimo which commenced a low level guerrilla insurgency tensions between secular left wing modernisers and conservative traditional africanists it was only at the second party congress in 1968 that the modernisers under samora machal triumphed dissidents fled abroad where some were assassinated by 1970 frelimo was a disciplined and effective fighting force that was successfully keeping the portuguese army tied down in 1973 frelimo moved into tete province and for the first time launched attacks south of the zambezi in the same year a portuguese general published a book questioning the entire future of portugal s colonies the army was tired of fighting in angola and mozambique in april 1974 a military coup overthrew the regime frelimo never succeeded in mobilising the general population let alone fomenting a mass uprising they just fought the portuguese army in the northern two provinces of the country for ten years with very little impact on the rest of the country none on the capital far away in the deep south frelimo came into power because the portuguese simply gave up and withdrew but this left frelimo lacking either military or political legitimacy p 146 the civil war 1977 to 1992 first of all the transition to independence was bungled frelimo came into power with a programme of hard core marxism leninism with the result that 90 of the white educated population and an unknown number of the asian business community simply left frelimo immediately made enemies of the white nationalist governments in south rhodesia and south africa these set about training a combination of frelimo dissidents and anti communists into what became renamo short for resistência nacional moçambicana i e mozambican national resistance renamo s insurgency against the frelimo government lasted for 15 long years with atrocities committed of course by both sides peace was eventually made possible when frelimo softened its doctrinaire communist ways in the later 1980s as the writing on the wall for the soviet union became clearer newitt doesn t go into the relationship between frelimo and the ussr and how this changed with the advent of gorbachev which feels like a glaring omission negotiations began in the late 1980s but the war dragged on because neither side was capable of ending it eventually frelimo caved in to the demands of renamo and the international community for a multiparty system and free elections these have actually been held in 1994 1999 2004 2009 2014 they were accompanied by violence international monitors say they were rigged but in each of them renamo won 40 or so of the vote i e they weren t a complete stitch up as communism faded away frelimo converted itself into your standard african corrupt nepotistic patrimonial government committed to staying in power forever however mozambican politics are notable for two exceptions to african traditions one is that tribalism hasn t reared its ugly head leaders on both sides refrained from playing the tribal card which so often in the rest of africa led to massacres instead the country s politics continue to be dominated by what have become entrenched regional divisions with frelimo being seen as the part of the south and far north renamo holding the centre and mid north second exception is that whereas in most african countries presidents turned themselves into dictators for life mobutu mugabe kagame afwerki in mozambique although frelimo is committed to eternal rule it has actually changed presidents after each has completed his two terms interesting to learn that some 50 of the government budget is funded by international donors over 2bn in 2014 p 210 frelimo has become dependent on staying in office on foreign aid pages 187 192 in fact newitt drily comments that seen from one angle frelimo s chief skill has been dancing to the changing whims and fashions of western aid to ensure the money keeps flowing p 212 the frelimo elite then channels the aid to itself and its followers who live a luxury first world existence in one of the poorest countries in the world after twenty five years the most striking consequence of the government s policies is the huge disparity in living standards between rich and poor a relatively small mozambican elite which includes many senior members of frelimo and the foreign business diplomatic and ngo communities enjoy an exaggeratedly high standard of living the modern buildings of maputo are grand and even ostentatious the city hotels are clad in marble with fountain courts and air conditioning expensive cars are parked outside to whisk businessmen to the ministries or the banks p 222 i was interested to read that frelimo set out in 1977 under marxist puritan machel to create new socialist man to force peasants off their traditional land into collective farms to ban pagan religions and old spiritual beliefs to educate the population into zeal for the revolution obviously all that failed and newitt quotes peasants who make up 75 of the population interviewed by researchers who expressed relief at being able to return to their ancestral land worship their ancestral spirits practice polygamy and so on the african way why newitt asks are the bottom 25 countries on the human development index all in sub saharan africa with the one exception of afghanistan because of the special style of patrimonial politics which has established itself as distinctively african meaning rule by a corrupt elite which run national budgets to benefit themselves their cronies and keep themselves in power screw their actual populations p 204 the 1992 peace accord and the aid bonanza that followed rapidly transformed the frelimo elite into a patrimonial political class which in spite of the lip service being paid to liberal democratic ideals was determined to hang on to power at all costs and the costs increasingly involved not only corruption soon to achieve gargantuan proportions but crime fraud and political assassinations 199 newitt is entertainingly satirical about the bureaucratic organisation speak of the countless plans and strategies and policies unleashed on poor mozambique by a never ending stream of western institutions like the world bank the imf and the un with its utopian millennium development goals he quotes some of these documents purely to mock their high minded rhetoric which usually bears no relation to what s happening on the ground apart from killing each other which they still do in periodic outbursts of renewed fighting between the last renamo holdouts and government forces the main thing happening on the ground in mozambique is that its inhabitants like humans all round the planet are destroying the environment and degrading the ecosystems they rely on for their existence forests are being cut down and the native iron wood and ebony has been plundered uncontrollably illegal hunting is emptying the game parks and illegal fishing is plundering the seas the zambesi dams are radically altering the ecology of the river valley and illegal washing for gold is destroying whole landscapes p 211 in 1964 when the war for independence started the population of mozambique was 7 3 million now it is 32 million human beings are like locusts locusts with machine guns credit a short history of mozambique by malyn newitt was published in 2017 hurst and company all references are to the 2017 paperback edition africa related reviews africa reviews share this share on facebook opens in new window facebook share on x opens in new window x share on tumblr opens in new window tumblr share on pinterest opens in new window pinterest share on whatsapp opens in new window whatsapp email a link to a friend opens in new window email more share on reddit opens in new window reddit like loading leave a comment by simon on november 29 2023 permalink posted in africa history tagged 1992 peace accord a short history of mozambique african early modern history african history african prehistory africanists afrikaners ali musa mbiki angola antónio de oliveira salazar arabs archaeology atlantic slave trade boers botswana brazil britain carnation revolution cecil rhodes cold war colonial act colonialism congo congo river congress of berlin cuba david livingstone delagoa bay east africa emigration environmental destruction estado da india estado novo eswatini ethnicity foreign aid frelimo general smuts ghana goa gorbachev great depression gulf arabs henry morton stanley human development index imperialism india islam kimberley diamond mines lebombo mountains limpopo linguistics lisbon lourenço marques malyn newitt maputo marxism leninism mascarene islands mashonaland plateau matamba matrilinearity migrant workers military coup millennium development goals modern history mozambican national resistance mozambican war of 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