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rates is a very effective energy source and those carbohydrates that were mentioned and made use of in the publication were glucose glucose polymers maltodextrin fructose and or saccharose these molecules contain significantly large amounts of energy and it was noted that the athletes and test subjects endured high performance levels when these energy supplements were taken the paper went on to compare the vo2 max over the period of time of these subjects which were all of a specific age group in order to maintain certain factors as constant as humanly capable other factors were manipulated to ensure the most unbiased and effective results were obtained the authors also went further to source more relevant data on this topic to categorize their findings and to establish that carbohydrates are necessary for quality performance done by shawn bookmark the permalink spice up your diary april 10 2014 leave a comment hiv virus and enzyme inhibitors for hiv the production of new viruses occurs when viral rna is translated into a polypeptide sequence that sequence is assembled in a long chain that includes several individual proteins enzymes such as reverse transcriptase protease and integrase must be cut from the longer polypeptide chain before becoming functional as such viral protease cuts the long chain into its individual enzyme components allowing the production of new viruses therefore enzyme inhibitors can be used to fight hiv infection by blocking the ability of the protease to cleave the viral polypeptide into functional enzymes protease inhibitors interfere with continued infection mutations enable hiv to avoid treatments that involve only one drug so there is growing use of multiple drug therapies in which both a protease inhibitor and a reverse transcript inhibitor are combined to conclude human immunodeficiency virus hiv protease inhibitors inhibit replication of the hiv by preventing the cleavage of hiv polyproteins into functional proteins needed for hiv maturation references http www cellsalive com hiv4 htm http sgugenetics pbworks com w page 65457771 hiv 20developing 20drugs abby bookmark the permalink chemical denaturation dna supercoilng april 10 2014 leave a comment chemical denaturation the hydrogen bonds between the dna molecules are disrupted and broken then the hydrophobic effect or aromatic bases combining is reduced this allows for the denaturation of the dna strands in the double helical structure buoyant density dna has a density of 1 7gcm 3 c3 spectroscopic and thermal properties of nucleic acid nucleic acid absorbs uv light at a wavelength of maximum absorption of 260nm by dna and rna because of aromatic bases hypochromicity making the bases less available to uv absorption by stacking the nucleoitide rna and dna tightly together in water repelling environment the measuring of nucleic acid is done by the sum of the values of absorbance from the different bases which depends on the amount of secondary structures purity of dna are as follows a 260 a 280 dsdna 1 8 pure rna 2 0 protein 0 5 thermal denaturation dna and rna are heated the hydrogen bonds present in the double stranded regions are broken renaturation is done two ways by rapid and slow cooling rapid cooling allows local base pairs to be formed slightly decreasing absorbance slow cooling allows dsdna to be completed decreasing absorbance greatly annealing is the base pairing of short regions by complementarily between dna strands hybridization is done by the renaturation of complementary sequence between different nucleic acid molecules dna supercoilng most dna is circular and negatively supercoiled negative supercoiled dna has a higher torsional energy compared to that of relaxed dna topoisomer is a circular dsdna molecule with a specific linking number this number could be changed by first breaking one of the both strands topoisomerases are found in cells to regulate the level of supercoiling in dna molecules there are three topoisomerses type i break 1 strand and change linkage number by 1 type ii break 2 strands and change linkage number by 2 gyrase introduce negative coiling using the energy form atp hydrolysis ethidium bromide etbr is an intercalate used to stain dye hence to detect dna and rna bookmark the permalink nucleic acids april 7 2014 leave a comment so let s talk nucleic acids what are they nucleic acids are polymeric nucleotides in other words polynucleotides how are they produced dna and rna are synthesized in cells by dna polymerases and rna polymerases short fragments of nucleic acids also are commonly produced without enzymes by oligonucleotide synthesizers phosphodiester bonds are formed between the 3 carbon of one nucleotide and the 5 carbon of another nucleotide what happens next after the phosphodiester bonds are formed it leads to the formation of sugar phosphate backbone from which the bases project nucleic acids can be identified by ü the 5 5 prime and 3 3 prime ends meaning the 5 and 3 carbons on the sugar ü dna and rna polymerases add nucleotides to the 3 end of the previously incorporated base bored yet look something interesting the three forms of nucleic acids a form b form z form the a form is common for rna because of different sugar pucker it has a deeper minor groove and a shallow major groove in conditions of low water the a form is favoured the b forms the most common conformation for dna the z form is narrow and has a deep minor groove in the z form the major groove hardly exist the z form can form for some dna sequences but requires alternating syn and anti base configurations dna and rna are the same wrong view the following table dna rna 1 4 bases guanine g cytosine c adenine a thymine t 4 bases guanine g cytosine c adenine a uracil u 2 g c a t g c a u 3 deoxyribose sugar ribose sugar 4 double stranded single stranded 5 nucleus rrna mrna trna 6 synthesized in nucleus nucleoi for rrna function in cytosol now you may be wondering what is rrna mrna trna rrna is rna protein form ribosomes mrna is what carries dna code to cytosol for protein synthesis on the ribosomes and also read in triplets called codons 5 to 3 trna carries amino acids to mrna and matches up by base pairing of triplet anti codon with mrna codon triplet let s take a look at the stability of nucleic acids hydrogen bonding does hydrogen bonding stabilize nucleic acids nooo they do not normally contribute to the stability but they however contribute to the dna double helix and the rna secondary structure stacking interaction hydrophobic interaction does this affect stability yes the interaction between base pairs bases contributes to the stability two things to note is thatit is energetically favorable for the hydrophobic bases to exclude waters and stack on top of each other and this stacking is maximized in double stranded dna what is the effect of acid on nucleic acids with strong acid plus high temperature can lead to completely hydrolyzed to bases riboses deoxyrobose and phosphate when the ph is 3 4 apurinic nucleic acids that is glycosylic bonds attaching purine a and g bases to the ribose ring are broken can be generated by formic acid what is the effect of alkali on nucleic acids high ph changes the tautomeric state of the bases for example base pairing is not stable anymore because of the change of tautomeric states of the bases resulting in dna denaturation diagram showing change in tautomeric state when the ph that is from 7 8 has small effect on dna structure in addition rna hydrolyzes at higher ph because of 2 oh groups in rna abby bookmark the permalink nucleotides april 6 2014 aside leave a comment nucleotides these are biological molecules basically composed of a 5 carbon chain sugar a phosphate group and 1 of 4 nitrogen bases in humans this 5 carbon sugar can be either deoxyribose or ribose and the nitrogenous bases can be adenine thymine cystosine or guanine these bases can bond to the sugar molecules to form a nucleoside and a nucleoside and a phosphate group can bond together to give a nucleotide these nucleotides along with the phosphate group and the deoxyribose sugar combine to form the double helix structure of dna this is done as the phosphates bond together to form a backbone which form in opposite directions to give a 5 3 strand and a 3 5 strand this simply means that the phosphate is connected to the sugars 5th carbon at one end and the 3rd carbon at the other of a single strand and thus the opposite orientation for the other strand these chains are then linked by the nitrogenous bases orientating with each other through hydrogen bonding which are very weak interactions the thing is that this pairing is specific and leads to base pairs this stems from purines and pyrimidines interacting with each other in dna these pyrimidines are cytosine and thymine and the purines being adenine and guanine using letter notation a can only pair with t and c can only pair with g because of complementary hydrogen bonding these nucleotide base pairs then leads t o the base sequence which determines your dna rna molecules can also be formed by combination of the phosphate group ribose sugar and either of 4 nucleotides the thing is that rna is single stranded but just as in dna these nucleotides are adenine cystosine guanine and instead of thymine being present it is replaced by uracil therefore the complementary base pairs formed in rna are a u and c g done by shawn bookmark the permalink lipids not just fat march 24 2014 leave a comment okay lipids yeah what s the first thing that comes to mind fat cellulite weight gain just one big problem right no there is actually more to lipids than their bad reputation lipids are quite necessary for good health this awesomely diverse group is made of important materials necessary for energy storage structuring cell membranes and regulating bodily functions lipids are not water soluble due to their non polar nature formed by long chains of carbon hydrogen bonds relationships among lipids did you know that many lipids work like soap due to their non polar nature because lipids are nonpolar they are not water soluble so here s how it works the nonpolar region of soap is attracted to other nonpolar substances like the grease and oil that would remain on dirty dishes due to the attraction the soap encompasses the non polar region and the polar region is attracted to the water during the rinsing process the polar region of the lipid is attracted to the water and is water soluble and because the grease and dirt is encompassed in this micelle bubble similar to what would happen with phagocytosis everything is washed away yay now the dishes are clean awesome right please refer to the structure below for reference as seen above the interaction of lipids with other lipids contribute to the formation of the cell membrane and the interaction of lipids and non lipids are also important in the formation of lipid bilayers the fatty acid portion of lipids is super important due to their physical and chemical properties important features of fatty acids all are straight chained there is an even of c atoms if double bonds are present they form cis isomers some common fatty acids figure 1https www google bs search q ear wax espv 2 es_sm 119 source lnms tbm isch sa x ei fpcuu6cjosrwkqe254doba ved 0cacq_auoaq biw 1276 bih 706 q common fatty acids tbm isch facrc _ imgdii _ imgrc goh0hzrprqj4um 253a 3b9tjzq2ljgwb wm 3bhttp 253a 252f 252fpat did you know fats and oils are commonly known as triglycerides or triglycerols these molecules are triesters of fatty acids a glycerol group wait hold up what is a single ester if you guessed earwax then you re correct wax is a simple form of ester that acts as a protective coating and is generally unreactive glycerol is a trihydroxy alcohol the three alcohols react with fatty acid to become a part of an ester properties of fats fats are solid at room temp saturated fat has fatty acids with no c c unsaturated fats have 1 c c polyunsaturated fats have multiple c c double bonds there are 70 known naturally occurring fatty acids the cis formation in unsaturated and polyunsaturated fats puts kinks in the carbon chain that prevents stacking which inhibits fats ability to solidify how are fats broken down well the acid aids in the hydrolysis of fat to produce a glycerol and a fatty acid in the presence of excess base the reverse of this reaction is inhibited another method in the stomach is the use of the enzyme lipase specific for lipids which reduce triglycerides the resulting bile slats make the fatty acid portions water soluble and absorbable moore 128 141 now to tackle the complex lipids phosphoglycerides and sphingolipids phospholipids just think the mastermind behind the cell membrane phosphoglycerides 2 fatty acids glycerol phosphoric acid plasmalogens mainly contribute to the membranes of muscle and nerve cells phosphatidate these are important molecules that contribute to the formation of the lipid bilayer sphingolipids are found in plant animal brain and nerve tissue membranes basically or in a nutshell complex lipids contribute to the membranes of different organisms and major organ systems within the human body okay so we know lipids are used to construct membranes what else should we know about these lipid formed membranes membranes are used to separate the intra and extracellular regions of the cells knowing that lipids are made of fatty acids the non polar non water soluble region and a polar water soluble region would explain why lipids contribution to the cell membrane is something major the polarity of lipid membranes controls the entering and exiting of materials in the cell how the polar and non polar regions contribute to a pump for example the na k atpase pump the break down hydrolysis of atp provides energy for the transport of potassium and sodium ions in and out the cell simultaneously polar substances can t just stroll on by the hydrophobic region of the membrane and nonpolar materials can t just wander on through the hydrophilic outer region complicated huh let s just say the cell is well protected from unwelcomed guest to alleviate some of the workload on the membrane there is a channel within the membrane specifically for ions required for cell growth and development these channels are regulated chemically and are ligand gated channels an example for understanding would be acetylcholine in the triggering of nerve impulses once that action potential has been achieved the flow of the trigger is inhibited which is how gated channels work once the threshold of the cell has been reached for a particular substance the inflow of that molecule is inhibited steroids are another class of lipids we must cover you ll understand cholesterol is the most abundant steroid it is a membrane component and a source of other steroids awesome fact is that bile salts are a product of oxidizing cholesterol and guess what its water soluble therefore they are useful as d...