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rch these include certain types of radioactive decay spontaneous fission and neutron emission and from certain nuclear reaction s convenient nuclear reactions include tabletop reactions such as natural alpha and gamma bombardment of certain nuclides often beryllium or deuterium and induced nuclear fission such as occurs in nuclear reactors in addition high energy nuclear reactions such as occur in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions also produce neutrons from disintegration of target nuclei small tabletop particle accelerator s optimized to produce free neutrons in this way are called neutron generator s in practice the most commonly used small laboratory sources of neutrons use radioactive decay to power neutron production one noted neutron producing radioisotope californium 252 decays half life 2 65 years by spontaneous fission 3 of the time with production of 3 7 neutrons per fission and is used alone as a neutron source from this process nuclear reaction sources that involve two materials powered by radioisotopes use an alpha decay source plus a beryllium target or else a source of high energy gamma radiation from a source that undergoes beta decay followed by gamma decay which produces photoneutron s on interaction of the high energy gamma ray with ordinary stable beryllium or else with the deuterium in heavy water a popular startup neutron source source of the latter type is radioactive antimony 124 plus beryllium a system with a half life of 60 9 days which can be constructed from natural antimony which is 42 8 stable antimony 123 by activating it with neutrons in a nuclear reactor then transported to where the neutron source is needed ref byrne j neutrons nuclei and matter dover publications mineola new york 2011 isbn 0486482383 pp 32 33 ref file institut laue langevin ill in grenoble france jpg thumb right institut laue langevin ill in grenoble france a major neutron research facility nuclear reactor nuclear fission reactors naturally produce free neutrons their role is to sustain the energy producing chain reaction the intense neutron radiation can also be used to produce various radioisotopes through the process of neutron activation which is a type of neutron capture experimental fusion power nuclear fusion reactors produce free neutrons as a waste product but it is these neutrons that possess most of the energy and converting that energy to a useful form has proved a difficult engineering challenge fusion reactors that generate neutrons are likely to create radioactive waste but the waste is composed of neutron activated lighter isotopes which have relatively short 50 100 years decay periods as compared to typical half lives of 10 000 years ref cite web url https eesc columbia edu courses ees lithosphere labs lab12 radioisotope_tutorial html title isotopes and radioactivity tutorial access date 2020 04 16 archive date 2020 02 14 archive url https web archive org web 20200214215448 https eesc columbia edu courses ees lithosphere labs lab12 radioisotope_tutorial html ref for fission waste which is long due primarily to the long half life of alpha emitting transuranic actinides ref http news bbc co uk 1 hi sci tech 4627237 stm science nature q a nuclear fusion reactor webarchive url https web archive org web 20220225092021 http news bbc co uk 1 hi sci tech 4627237 stm date 2022 02 25 bbc news 2006 02 06 retrieved on 2010 12 04 ref some nuclear fusion fission hybrid s are proposed to make use of those neutrons to either maintain a subcritical reactor or to aid in nuclear transmutation of harmful long lived nuclear waste to shorter lived or stable nuclides neutron beams and modification of beams after production free neutron beams are obtained from neutron source s by neutron transport for access to intense neutron sources researchers must go to a specialized neutron research facility neutron facility that operates a research reactor or a spallation source the neutron s lack of total electric charge makes it difficult to steer or accelerate them charged particles can be accelerated decelerated or deflected by electric field electric or magnetic field s these methods have little effect on neutrons but some effects may be attained by use of inhomogeneous magnetic fields because of the neutron magnetic moment neutron s magnetic moment neutrons can be controlled by methods that include neutron moderator moderation neutron reflector reflection and neutron velocity selector velocity selection thermal neutron s can be polarized by transmission through magnet ic materials in a method analogous to the faraday effect for photon s cold neutrons of wavelengths of 6 7 angstroms can be produced in beams of a high degree of polarization by use of neutron supermirror magnetic mirrors and magnetized interference filters ref byrne j neutrons nuclei and matter dover publications mineola new york 2011 isbn 0486482383 p 453 ref applications science with neutrons nuclear energy because of the strength of the nuclear force at short distances the nuclear binding energy energy binding nucleons is many orders of magnitude greater than the electromagnetic energy binding electrons in atoms ref name enw rp 4 in nuclear fission the absorption of a neutron by some heavy nuclides such as uranium 235 can cause the nuclide to become unstable and break into lighter nuclides and additional neutrons ref name enw the positively charged light nuclides or fission fragments then repel releasing electromagnetic potential energy ref name nuclear energy cite web last1 title nuclear energy url http electron6 phys utk edu phys250 modules module 205 nuclear_energy htm website physics 250 modern physics publisher the university of tennessee department of physics and astronomy access date 1 may 2024 archive date 20 february 2020 archive url https web archive org web 20200220205637 http electron6 phys utk edu phys250 modules module 205 nuclear_energy htm url status live ref if this reaction occurs within a mass of fissile material the additional neutrons cause additional fission events inducing a cascade known as a nuclear chain reaction ref name enw rp 12 13 for a given mass of fissile material such nuclear reaction s release energy that is approximately ten million times that from an equivalent mass of a conventional chemical explosive ref name enw rp 13 ref a 0 57 kg mass of fissionable material such as uranium 235 can release an amount of energy equivalent to 10 metric kilotons of tnt fissionable material therefore has an energy density approximately 10 sup 7 sup greater than this conventional explosive ref ultimately the ability of the nuclear force to store energy arising from the electromagnetic repulsion of nuclear components is the basis for most of the energy that makes nuclear reactors or bombs possible most of the energy released from fission is the kinetic energy of the fission fragments ref name nuclear energy ref name enw rp 12 the neutron plays an important role in many nuclear reactions for example neutron capture often results in neutron activation inducing radioactivity in particular knowledge of neutrons and their behavior has been important in the development of nuclear reactor s and nuclear weapon s the nuclear fission fissioning of elements like uranium 235 and plutonium 239 is caused by their absorption of neutrons other uses neutron temperature cold thermal and hot neutron radiation is commonly employed in neutron scattering facilities for neutron diffraction small angle neutron scattering and neutron reflectometry slow neutron matter waves exhibit properties similar to geometrical and wave optics of light including reflection refraction diffraction and interference ref name klein werner 1983 pp 259 335 cite journal last1 klein first1 ag last2 werner first2 sa title neutron optics journal reports on progress in physics publisher iop publishing volume 46 issue 3 date 1983 03 01 issn 0034 4885 doi 10 1088 0034 4885 46 3 001 pages 259 335 s2cid 250903152 url https www researchgate net publication 231072989 access date 2023 07 06 archive date 2024 05 12 archive url https web archive org web 20240512232101 https www researchgate net publication 231072989_4_neutron_optics url status live ref neutrons are complementary to x ray s in terms of atomic contrasts by different scattering cross section physics cross section s sensitivity to magnetism energy range for inelastic neutron spectroscopy and deep penetration into matter the development of neutron lenses based on total internal reflection within hollow glass capillary tubes or by reflection from dimpled aluminum plates has driven ongoing research into neutron microscopy and neutron gamma ray tomography ref cite journal last kumakhov first m a author2 sharov v a year 1992 title a neutron lens journal nature journal nature volume 357 issue 6377 pages 390 391 doi 10 1038 357390a0 bibcode 1992natur 357 390k s2cid 37062511 ref ref http www physorg com news599 html physorg com new way of seeing a neutron microscope webarchive url https web archive org web 20120124122838 http www physorg com news599 html date 2012 01 24 physorg com 2004 07 30 retrieved on 2012 08 16 ref ref http www nasa gov vision earth technologies nuggets html nasa develops a nugget to search for life in space webarchive url https web archive org web 20140308200231 http www nasa gov vision earth technologies nuggets html date 2014 03 08 nasa gov 2007 11 30 retrieved on 2012 08 16 ref ref cite journal last1 ioffe first1 a last2 dabagov first2 s last3 kumakhov first3 m date 1995 01 01 title effective neutron bending at large angles journal neutron news volume 6 issue 3 pages 20 21 doi 10 1080 10448639508217696 issn 1044 8632 ref a major use of neutrons is to excite delayed and prompt gamma ray s from elements in materials this forms the basis of neutron activation analysis naa and prompt gamma neutron activation analysis pgnaa naa is most often used to analyze small samples of materials in a nuclear reactor whilst pgnaa is most often used to analyze subterranean rocks around bore hole s and industrial bulk materials on conveyor belts another use of neutron emitters is the detection of light nuclei in particular the hydrogen found in water molecules when a fast neutron collides with a light nucleus it loses a large fraction of its energy by measuring the rate at which slow neutrons return to the probe after reflecting off of hydrogen nuclei a neutron probe may determine the water content in soil medical therapies main fast neutron therapy neutron capture therapy of cancer because neutron radiation is both penetrating and ionizing it can be exploited for medical treatments however neutron radiation can have the unfortunate side effect of leaving the affected area radioactive neutron tomography is therefore not a viable medical application fast neutron therapy uses high energy neutrons typically greater than 20 mev to treat cancer radiation therapy of cancers is based upon the biological response of cells to ionizing radiation if radiation is delivered in small sessions to damage cancerous areas normal tissue will have time to repair itself while tumor cells often cannot ref cite book last hall first eric j title radiobiology for the radiologist date 2000 publisher lippincott williams wilkins isbn 0 7817 2649 2 edition 5th location philadelphia oclc 43854159 ref neutron radiation can deliver energy to a cancerous region at a rate an order of magnitude larger than gamma radiation ref johns he and cunningham jr 1978 the physics of radiology charles c thomas 3rd edition ref beams of low energy neutrons are used in neutron capture therapy of cancer boron neutron capture therapy to treat cancer in boron neutron capture therapy the patient is given a drug that contains boron and that preferentially accumulates in the tumor to be targeted the tumor is then bombarded with very low energy neutrons although often higher than thermal energy which are captured by the boron 10 isotope in the boron which produces an excited state of boron 11 that then decays to produce lithium 7 and an alpha particle that have sufficient energy to kill the malignant cell but insufficient range to damage nearby cells for such a therapy to be applied to the treatment of cancer a neutron source having an intensity of the order of a billion 10 sup 9 sup neutrons per second per cm sup 2 sup is preferred such fluxes require a research nuclear reactor health risks exposure to free neutrons can be hazardous since the interaction of neutrons with molecules in the body can cause disruption to molecule s and atom s and can also cause reactions that give rise to other forms of radiation such as protons ref name enw the normal precautions of radiation protection apply avoid exposure stay as far from the source as possible and keep exposure time to a minimum but particular thought must be given to how to protect from neutron exposure for other types of radiation e g alpha particle s beta particle s or gamma ray s material of a high atomic number and with high density makes for good shielding frequently lead is used however this approach will not work with neutrons since the absorption of neutrons does not increase straightforwardly with atomic number as it does with alpha beta and gamma radiation instead one needs to look at the particular interactions neutrons have with matter see the section on detection above for example hydrogen rich materials are often used to shield against neutrons since ordinary hydrogen both scatters and slows neutrons this often means that simple concrete blocks or even paraffin loaded plastic blocks afford better protection from neutrons than do far more dense materials after slowing neutrons may then be absorbed with an isotope that has high affinity for slow neutrons without causing secondary capture radiation such as lithium 6 hydrogen rich water ordinary water effects neutron absorption in nuclear fission reactors usually neutrons are so strongly absorbed by normal water that fuel enrichment with a fissionable isotope is required the number of neutrons produced per fission depends primarily on the fission products the average is roughly 2 5 to 3 0 and at least one on average must evade capture in order to sustain the nuclear chain reaction the deuterium in heavy water has a very much lower absorption affinity for neutrons than does protium normal light hydrogen deuterium is therefore used in candu type reactors in order to slow neutron moderator moderate neutron velocity to increase the probability of nuclear fission compared to neutron capture neutron temperature main neutron temperature the energy of free neutrons are characterized by their temperature as given by their maxwell boltzmann distribution for example neutron temperature thermal neutron s have with kt val 0 0253 ul ev val 4 0 e 21 ul j corresponding to room temperature giving them a characteristic not average or median speed of 2 2 km s in many substances ther...