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ropeans when the continent was progressively colonized by the british from 1788 during colonization the aboriginal people experienced depopulation from disease and settler violence dispossession of their land and severe disruption of their traditional cultures by 1850 indigenous peoples were a minority in australia 79 european justifications for colonization see also discovery doctrine from the 15th to the 19th centuries european powers used a number of rationales for the colonization of newly encountered lands populated by indigenous peoples these included a duty to spread the gospel to non christians to bring civilization to barbarian peoples a natural law right to explore and trade freely with other peoples and a right to settle and cultivate uninhabited or uncultivated land which they considered terra nullius no one s land 80 robert j miller jacinta ruru larissa behrendt and tracey lindberg argue that european powers rationalized their colonization of the new world by the discovery doctrine which they trace back to papal decrees authorizing spain and portugal to conquer newly discovered non christian lands and convert their populations to christianity 81 kent mcneil however states while spain and portugal favoured discovery and papal grants because it was generally in their interests to do so france and britain relied more on symbolic acts colonial charters and occupation 82 benton and strauman argue that european powers often adopted multiple sometimes contradictory legal rationales for their acquisition of territory as a deliberate strategy in defending their claims against european rivals 83 settler independence and continuing colonialism see also settler colonialism although the establishment of colonies throughout the world by various european powers aimed to expand those powers wealth and influence settler populations in some localities became anxious to assert their own autonomy for example settler independence movements in thirteen of the british american colonies were successful by 1783 following the american revolutionary war this resulted in the establishment of the united states of america as an entity separate from the british empire the united states continued and expanded european colonial doctrine through adopting a version of the discovery doctrine as law in 1823 with the us supreme court case johnson v mcintosh statements at the johnson court case illuminated the united states support for the principles of the discovery doctrine 84 the united states and its civilized inhabitants now hold this country they hold and assert in themselves the title by which it was acquired they maintain as all others have maintained that discovery gave an exclusive right to extinguish the indian title of occupancy either by purchase or by conquest and gave also a right to such a degree of sovereignty as the circumstances of the people would allow them to exercise this loss of native property and sovereignty rights was justified the court said by the character and religion of its inhabitants the superior genius of europe and ample compensation to the indians by bestowing on them civilization and christianity in exchange for unlimited independence population and distribution a map of uncontacted peoples around the start of the 21st century 21st century estimates of the population of indigenous peoples range from 250 million to 750 million 5 in 2007 mirjan hirch a researcher with the center for world indigenous studies estimated the population at 750 million to a billion comprising six to seven thousand distinct peoples 85 the united nations estimated in 2009 that there were over 370 million indigenous people living in over 90 countries worldwide belonging to at least 5 000 distinct peoples 86 87 in 2011 the world bank estimated 300 million indigenous peoples including 23 million in latin america 106 million in china 95 million in south asia 30 million in southeast asia 22 million in africa 15 million in the arab states and 9 million in the rest of the world 88 the international labor organization in 2019 estimated based on census data that there were 476 million indigenous people in 58 countries 89 both the un and the ilo described their estimates as minimums with the latter calculated using the most reliable lower bound estimates available 90 as there is no universally accepted definition of indigenous peoples their classification as such varies between countries and organizations 18 in the americas australia and new zealand indigenous status is often applied unproblematically to groups descended from the peoples who lived there prior to european settlement however in asia and africa indigenous status has sometimes been rejected by certain peoples denied by governments or applied to peoples who may not be considered indigenous in other contexts 91 the concept of indigenous peoples is rarely used in europe where very few indigenous groups are recognized with the exception of groups such as the sámi 92 environmental and economic benefits of the indigenous stewardship of land this article may be unbalanced toward certain viewpoints please help improve it by adding information on neglected viewpoints relevant discussion may be found on the talk page january 2022 see also climate change and indigenous peoples a wri report mentions that tenure secure indigenous lands generates billions and sometimes trillions of dollars worth of benefits in the form of carbon sequestration reduced pollution clean water and more it says that tenure secure indigenous lands have low deforestation rates 93 94 they help to reduce ghg emissions control erosion and flooding by anchoring soil and provide a suite of other local regional and global ecosystem services however many of these communities find themselves on the front lines of the deforestation crisis and their lives and livelihoods threatened 95 96 97 indigenous peoples and the environment misconceptions about the historical relationship between indigenous populations and their landbase has informed some westerners view of california s wild eden which may influence policy decisions about the wilderness some academics assumed that the only pre colonial human interactions with nature were as hunter gatherers others say that the relationship was one of calculated tempered use of nature as active agents of environmental change and stewardship they argue that a view of wilderness as uninhabited nature has resulted in removal of indigenous inhabitants to preserve the wild and that depriving the land of traditional indigenous practices such as controlled burns harvesting and seed scattering has yielded dense understory shrubbery or tickets of young trees which are inhospitable to life recent studies indicate that indigenous peoples used land sustainably without causing substantial losses of biodiversity for thousands of years 98 a goal is to ascertain an unbiased view of indigenous practices of resource management 99 page needed 100 page needed 101 102 historical literature archaeological findings ecological field studies and native peoples cultures show indications that indigenous land management practices were largely successful in promoting habitat heterogeneity increasing biodiversity and maintaining certain vegetation types sustaining human lives while conserving natural resources 103 recently it has come to light that the deforestation rate of indonesian rainforests has been far greater than estimated such a rate could not have been the product of globalization as understood before rather it seemed that ordinary local people dependent on these forests for their livelihoods are in fact joining distant corporations in creating uninhabitable landscapes 104 page needed in eastern penan three categories of misrepresentation are noticeable the practice of molong which means never taking more than necessary is a concept of resource management based purely on stewardship communities or individuals take ownership of specific trees maintaining and harvesting from them sustainably over a long period of time some feel this practice has been romanticized in environmentalist writings landscape features and particularly their names in local languages provided geographical and historical information for penan people whereas in environmentalist accounts it has turned into a spiritual practice where trees and rivers represent forest spirits that are sacred to the penan people a typical stereotype of some environmentalists approach to ecological ethnography is to present indigenous knowledge of nature as valuable to the outside world because of its hidden medicinal benefits in reality eastern penan populations do not identify a medicinal stream of knowledge these misrepresentations in the narrative of indigeneity and value of indigenous knowledge might have been helpful for penan s people in their struggle to protect their environment but it might also have disastrous consequences what happens if another case did not fit in this romantic narrative or another indigenous knowledge did not seem beneficial to the outside world these people were being uprooted in the first place because their communities did not fit well with the state s system of values 105 at the 2024 united nations biodiversity conference cop16 nations agreed to a new permanent body for indigenous peoples which will allow them to advise and offer their view at biodiversity cops directly 106 indigenous peoples by region see also list of indigenous peoples indigenous populations are distributed in regions throughout the globe the numbers condition and experience of indigenous groups may vary widely within a given region a comprehensive survey is further complicated by sometimes contentious membership and identification africa main article indigenous peoples of africa see also category indigenous peoples of africa sub saharan africa starting fire by hand san people in botswana african pygmies in congo in the postcolonial period the concept of specific indigenous peoples within the african continent has gained wider acceptance although not without controversy the highly diverse and numerous ethnic groups that comprise most modern independent african states contain within them various peoples whose situation cultures and pastoralist or hunter gatherer lifestyles are generally marginalized and set apart from the dominant political and economic structures of the nation since the late 20th century these peoples have increasingly sought recognition of their rights as distinct indigenous peoples in both national and international contexts though the vast majority of african peoples are indigenous in the sense that they originate from the continent identity as an indigenous people via the modern definition of a political indigenous status is more restrictive and certainly not every african ethnic group claims identification under these terms groups and communities who do claim this recognition are those who by a variety of historical and environmental circumstances have been placed outside of the dominant state systems and whose traditional practices and land claims often come into conflict with the objectives and policies implemented by governments companies and surrounding dominant societies north africa the indigenous peoples of north africa predominantly comprise the berbers in the maghreb and the copts and nubians in the nile valley the vast majority of them have been arabized after the islamic conquests under the rashidun and umayyad caliphates copts are an ethnoreligious group indigenous to egypt and parts of the sudan and libya one of the oldest christian communities in the world 107 108 americas main article indigenous peoples of the americas see also category indigenous peoples of the americas inuit on a traditional qamutik dog sled in cape dorset nunavut canada a girl wears the traditional nahua headdress in yohualichan veracruz indigenous peoples of the americas are broadly recognized as being those groups and their descendants who inhabited the region before the arrival of european colonizers and settlers i e pre columbian indigenous peoples who maintain or seek to maintain traditional ways of life are found from the high arctic north to the southern extremities of tierra del fuego the impacts of historical and ongoing european colonization of the americas on indigenous communities have been in general quite severe with many authorities estimating ranges of significant population decline primarily due to disease land theft and violence several peoples have become extinct or very nearly so but there are and have been many thriving and resilient indigenous nations and communities north america north america is sometimes referred to by indigenous peoples as abya yala or turtle island in mexico about 11 million people or 9 of mexico s total population self reported as indigenous in 2015 making it the country with the highest indigenous population in north america 109 110 in the southern states of oaxaca 65 73 and yucatán 65 40 the majority of the population is indigenous as reported in 2015 other states with high populations of indigenous peoples include campeche 44 54 quintana roo 44 44 hidalgo 36 21 chiapas 36 15 puebla 35 28 and guerrero 33 92 111 112 indigenous peoples in canada comprise the first nations 113 inuit 114 and métis 115 the descriptors indian and eskimo have fallen into disuse in canada 116 117 more currently the term aboriginal is being replaced with indigenous several national organizations in canada changed their names from aboriginal to indigenous most notable was the change of aboriginal affairs and northern development canada aandc to indigenous and northern affairs canada inac in 2015 which then split into indigenous services canada and crown indigenous relations and northern development canada in 2017 118 according to the 2016 census there are around 1 670 000 indigenous people in canada 119 there are currently over 600 recognized first nations governments or bands spread across canada such as the cree mohawk mikmaq blackfoot coast salish innu dene and more with distinctive indigenous cultures languages art and music 120 121 first nations peoples signed 11 numbered treaties 122 across much of what is now known as canada between 1871 and 1921 except in parts of british columbia citation needed the inuit have achieved a degree of administrative autonomy with the creation in 1999 of the territories of nunavik in northern quebec nunatsiavut in northern labrador and nunavut which was until 1999 a part of the northwest territories the autonomous territory of greenland within the kingdom of denmark is also home to a recognized indigenous and majority population of inuit about 85 who settled the area in the 13th century displacing the indigenous european greenlandic norse 123 124 125 126 in the united states the combined populations of native americans inuit and other indigenous designations totaled 2 786 652 constituting...