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chy the painting depicts the moment when the emperor crowned the empress the death of his father gave alexander a diplomatic headache for his father was engaged in open warfare in the southwest of his empire on 15 january 1856 the new tsar took russia out of the crimean war on the very unfavourable terms of the treaty of paris 1856 which included the loss of the black sea fleet and the provision that the black sea was to be a demilitarized zone similar to a contemporaneous region of the baltic sea this gave him room to breathe and pursue an ambitious plan of domestic reforms reforms edit main article government reforms of alexander ii of russia encouraged by public opinion alexander began a period of radical reforms including an attempt not to depend on landed aristocracy controlling the poor an effort to develop russia s natural resources and to reform all branches of the administration 9 boris chicherin 1828 1904 was a political philosopher who believed that russia needed a strong authoritative government by alexander to make the reforms possible he praised alexander for the range of his fundamental reforms arguing that the tsar was called upon to execute one of the hardest tasks which can confront an autocratic ruler to completely remodel the enormous state which had been entrusted to his care to abolish an age old order founded on slavery to replace it with civic decency and freedom to establish justice in a country which had never known the meaning of legality to redesign the entire administration to introduce freedom of the press in the context of untrammeled authority to call new forces to life at every turn and set them on firm legal foundations to put a repressed and humiliated society on its feet and to give it the chance to flex its muscles 17 emancipation of the serfs edit main articles emancipation reform of 1861 and abolition of serfdom in livonia alexander ii succeeded to the throne upon the death of his father in 1855 as tsesarevich he had been an enthusiastic supporter of his father s reactionary policies that is he always obeyed the autocratic ruler but now he was the autocratic ruler himself and fully intended to rule according to what he thought best he rejected any moves to set up a parliamentary system that would curb his powers he inherited a large mess that had been wrought by his father s fear of progress during his reign many of the other royal families of europe had also disliked nicholas i which extended to distrust of the romanov dynasty itself even so there was no one more prepared to bring the country around than alexander ii 18 the first year of his reign was devoted to the prosecution of the crimean war and after the fall of sevastopol to negotiations for peace led by his trusted counsellor prince alexander gorchakov the country had been exhausted and humiliated by the war 19 bribe taking theft and corruption were rampant 20 russian peasants reading the emancipation manifesto an 1873 painting by grigory myasoyedov the emancipation reform of 1861 abolished serfdom on private estates throughout the russian empire by this edict more than 23 million people received their liberty 21 serfs gained the full rights of free citizens including rights to marry without having to gain consent to own property and to own a business the measure was the first and most important of the liberal reforms made by alexander ii polish landed proprietors of the lithuanian provinces presented a petition hoping that their relations with the serfs might be regulated in a way more satisfactory for the proprietors alexander ii authorized the formation of committees for ameliorating the condition of the peasants and laid down the principles on which the amelioration was to be effected 9 without consulting his ordinary advisers alexander ordered the minister of the interior to send a circular to the provincial governors of european russia serfdom was rare in other parts containing a copy of the instructions forwarded to the governor general of lithuania praising the supposed generous patriotic intentions of the lithuanian landed proprietors and suggesting that perhaps the landed proprietors of other provinces might express a similar desire the hint was taken in all provinces where serfdom existed emancipation committees were formed 9 leaving church in pskov 1864 emancipation was not a simple goal capable of being achieved instantaneously by imperial decree it contained complicated problems deeply affecting the economic social and political future of the nation alexander had to choose between the different measures recommended to him and decide if the serfs would become agricultural laborers dependent economically and administratively on the landlords or if the serfs would be transformed into a class of independent communal proprietors 9 the emperor gave his support to the latter project and the russian peasantry became one of the last groups of peasants in europe to shake off serfdom the architects of the emancipation manifesto were alexander s brother konstantin yakov rostovtsev and nikolay milyutin on 3 march 1861 six years after his accession the emancipation law was signed and published additional reforms edit main article government reforms of alexander ii of russia the us 7 2 million check used to pay for russian alaska in 1867 a host of new reforms followed in diverse areas 22 23 the tsar appointed dmitry milyutin to carry out significant reforms in the russian armed forces further important changes were made concerning industry and commerce and the new freedom thus afforded produced a large number of limited liability companies 9 plans were formed for building a great network of railways partly to develop the natural resources of the country and partly to increase its power for defense and attack 9 military reforms included universal conscription introduced for all social classes on 1 january 1874 24 prior to the new regulation as of 1861 conscription was compulsorily enforced only for the peasantry conscription had been 25 years for serfs who were drafted by their landowners which was widely considered to be a life sentence 25 other military reforms included extending the reserve forces and the military district system which split the russian states into 15 military districts a system still in use over a hundred years later the building of strategic railways and an emphasis on the military education of the officer corps comprised further reforms corporal punishment in the military and branding of soldiers as punishment were banned 26 the bulk of important military reforms were enacted as a result of the poor showing in the crimean war a new judicial administration 1864 based on the french model introduced security of tenure 27 a new penal code and a greatly simplified system of civil and criminal procedure also came into operation 28 reorganisation of the judiciary occurred to include trial in open court with judges appointed for life a jury system and the creation of justices of the peace to deal with minor offences at local level legal historian sir henry maine credited alexander ii with the first great attempt since the time of grotius to codify and humanise the usages of war 29 alexander ii with his uncle german emperor william i on a hunting trip together 1872 alexander s bureaucracy instituted an elaborate scheme of local self government zemstvo for the rural districts 1864 and the large towns 1870 with elective assemblies possessing a restricted right of taxation and a new rural and municipal police under the direction of the minister of the interior 1 under alexander s rules jews could not own land and were restricted in travel however special taxes on jews were eliminated and those who graduated from secondary school were permitted to live outside the pale of settlement and became eligible for state employment large numbers of educated jews moved as soon as possible to moscow saint petersburg and other major cities 30 31 the alaska colony was losing money and would be impossible to defend in wartime against britain so in 1867 russia sold alaska to the united states for 7 2 million equivalent to 166 million in 2025 the russian administrators soldiers settlers and some of the priests returned home others stayed to minister to their native parishioners who remain members of the russian orthodox church into the 21st century 32 reaction after 1866 edit map of the russian empire at its height in 1866 alexander maintained a generally liberal course 33 radicals complained he did not go far enough and he became a target for numerous assassination plots he survived attempts that took place in 1866 1879 and 1880 finally 13 march o s 1 march 1881 assassins organized by the narodnaya volya people s will party killed him with a bomb the emperor had earlier in the day signed the loris melikov constitution which would have created two legislative commissions made up of indirectly elected representatives had it not been repealed by his reactionary successor alexander iii 34 an attempted assassination in 1866 started a more conservative period that lasted until his death 3 the tsar made a series of new appointments replacing liberal ministers with conservatives 35 under minister of education dmitry tolstoy liberal university courses and subjects that encouraged critical thinking were replaced by a more traditional curriculum and from 1871 onwards only students from gymnasiums could progress to university 36 35 in 1879 governors general were established with powers to prosecute in military courts and exile political offenders the government also held show trials with the intention of deterring others from revolutionary activity but after cases such as the trial of the 193 where sympathetic juries acquitted many of the defendants 37 this was abandoned 35 suppression of separatist movements edit battle of mrzygłód during the january uprising in 1863 after alexander ii became emperor of russia and king of poland in 1855 he substantially relaxed the strict and repressive regime that had been imposed on congress poland after the november uprising of 1830 1831 38 39 full citation needed however in 1856 at the beginning of his reign alexander made a memorable speech to the deputies of the polish nobility who inhabited congress poland western ukraine lithuania livonia and belarus in which he warned against further concessions with the words gentlemen let us have no dreams 40 this served as a warning to the polish lithuanian commonwealth the territories of the former poland lithuania were excluded from liberal policies introduced by alexander the result was the january uprising of 1863 1864 that was suppressed after eighteen months of fighting hundreds of poles were executed and thousands were deported to siberia the price of suppression was russian support for the unification of germany citation needed the martial law in lithuania introduced in 1863 lasted for the next 40 years native languages ukrainian and belarusian were completely banned from printed texts the ems ukase being an example the authorities banned use of the latin script for writing lithuanian the polish language was banned in both oral and written form from all provinces except congress poland where it was allowed in private conversations only nikolay milyutin was installed as governor and he decided that the best response to the january uprising was to make reforms regarding the peasants he devised a program which involved the emancipation of the peasantry at the expense of the nationalist szlachta landowners and the expulsion of roman catholic priests from schools 41 emancipation of the polish peasantry from their serf like status took place in 1864 on more generous terms than the emancipation of russian peasants in 1861 42 encouraging finnish nationalism edit monument to alexander ii the liberator at the senate square in helsinki by sculptor walter runeberg it was erected in 1894 when finland was still a russian grand duchy in 1863 alexander ii re convened the diet of finland and initiated several increasing finland s autonomy within the russian empire including establishment of its own currency the finnish markka 43 liberation of business led to increased foreign investment and industrial development finland also got its first railways separately established under finnish administration 44 finally the elevation of finnish from a language of the common people to a national language equal to swedish opened opportunities for a larger proportion of finnish society alexander ii is still regarded as the good tsar in finland 44 these reforms could be seen as results of a genuine belief that reforms were easier to test in an underpopulated homogeneous country than in the whole of russia they may also be seen as a reward for the loyalty of its relatively western oriented population during the crimean war and during the polish uprising encouraging finnish nationalism and language can also be seen as an attempt to dilute ties with sweden foreign affairs edit during the crimean war austria maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards russia and while not going to war was supportive of the anglo french coalition having abandoned its alliance with russia austria was diplomatically isolated following the war which contributed to russia s non intervention in the 1859 franco austrian war which meant the end of austrian influence in italy and in the 1866 austro prussian war with the loss of its influence in most german speaking lands 45 during the american civil war 1861 1865 russia supported the union largely due to the view that the u s served as a counterbalance to their geopolitical rival great britain in 1863 the russian navy s baltic and pacific fleets wintered in the american ports of new york and san francisco respectively 46 the monument to the tsar liberator in the centre of sofia the capital of bulgaria the treaty of paris of 1856 stood until 1871 when prussia defeated france in the franco prussian war during his reign napoleon iii eager for the support of the united kingdom had opposed russia over the eastern question france abandoned its opposition to russia after the establishment of the french third republic encouraged by the new attitude of french diplomacy and supported by the german chancellor otto von bismarck russia renounced the black sea clauses of the paris treaty agreed to in 1856 as the united kingdom with austria 47 could not enforce the clauses russia once again established a fleet in the black sea france after the franco prussian war and the loss of alsace lorraine was fervently hostile to germany and maintained friendly relations with russia in the russo turkish war 1877 1878 the states of romania serbia and montenegro gained international recognition of their independence while bulgaria and eastern rumelia achieved their autonomy from direct ottoman rule russia took over southern bessarabia 48 lost in 1856 the matter of complete con...