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eatre judeo tat theatre jewish dance humour list of jews in the visual arts list of jewish film directors jews in american cinema science medicine astronomy biblical cosmology mathematicians scientists sport list of jews in sports association football baseball jewish sports hall of fame maccabiah games jewish athletes and yom kippur cuisine ancient israelite sephardi mizrahi ashkenazi other aspects symbolism clothing architecture portal judaism category jewish culture v t e a significant shift occurred in jewish artistic expression during late antiquity when jews began incorporating symbolic motifs in their synagogal and funerary art this change was not only evident in the variety of contexts and localities but also in the diverse range of objects that featured these symbols the repertoire of symbols initially limited expanded over time 11 8 12 this change in artistic expression was influenced by the rise of christianity and its establishment as the official religion of the roman empire the new religious landscape presented a challenge to judaism necessitating a shift in cultural representation the jews began to use specific symbols in their art as a means of expressing and affirming their jewish identity these symbols included the menorah the showbread table the ark ritual objects and the conch originally part of the temple rites these symbols held significant meaning and became a prominent feature in jewish art of the period they served not only as religious symbols but also as emblems of national and communal identity 13 14 the menorah s evolution is understood as a key example of this transition initially a sign of priestly roles during the second temple period the menorah transformed into a widely recognized symbol of jewish identity after the temple s destruction 15 12 11 motifs edit menorah edit main article temple menorah dura europos archival photograph showing menorah the menorah originally described in the bible as being a solid gold candelabrum with a central shaft and six branches extending from it is mentioned first in the context of the tabernacle 16 and was later used in the temple of jerusalem as part of the daily ritual even as the second temple stood the image of the menorah was used in a decorative context 17 as a concrete figurative symbol the menorah first appeared during the second half of the first century bce depictions increased gradually over time 18 gaining particular prominence in the ornamentation of synagogues places of residence catacombs and ritual objects during the third and fourth centuries ce both in israel and in the diaspora 19 the first visual representations of the menorah appear on the coins of the last hasmonean king mattathias antigonus 40 37 bce additional depictions from the second temple period include those on several plaster fragments from the jewish quarter of jerusalem and a sundial found near the tempe mount five incised menorahs on the eastern wall of jason s tomb in jerusalem two painted menorahs on the wall of a cistern in a refuge cave of nahal mikhmas two ossuaries from jerusalem one ossuary from the goliath family tomb at jericho and the famous depiction on the arch of titus 17 20 the darom clay oil lamps from judea have depictions of the menorah as well though they are dated to the period between the destruction of the temple 70 ce and the bar kokhba revolt 135 ce 21 remains of several free standing menorahs have been unearthed in the excavations of several ancient synagogues in hammat tiberias horvat qoshet sussiya ma on eshtemoa meroth ein gedi and the diasporan synagogue of sardis save the menorah from ein gedi which was made of bronze the rest were largely made of stone though it is possible that others originally made of metal were plundered and those made of wood did not survive due to decay 22 the most famous of menorah representations from late antiquity appear on synagogue mosaics such as have been found in hammat tiberias bet alpha sussiya na aran huseifa bet shean sepphoris ma on hulda jericho gerasa and ein gedi though their numbers on both public and domestic architectural elements such as lintels chancel screens capitals columns and others ranging from the 2nd century and onwards are much greater these have been unearthed in locations such as ashdod ashkelon capernaum ein nashut eshtemoa fiq gaza hebron jericho jerusalem naveh qasrin sussiya tiberias and many others 23 not only in israel but in the diaspora as well the menorah was a prominent symbol in synagogues and was often found in various artistic forms menorahs of different styles appear on the wall paintings at the dura europos synagogue while mosaics with menorahs were discovered in diaspora locations such as apaemea bova marina hamam lif and philippopolis reliefs engravings and incisions featuring menorahs were found at ostia priene sardis and stobi and images of menorahs were also found on architectural and stone fragments at acmonia aphordisias athens bithynion caludiopolis corinth nicaea pergamon porto italy and tarragona 24 25 the practical use of the menorah in the diaspora synagogal context is implied by the inscriptions from the synagogues of side in pamphylia and sardis in which donation of menorahs to these synagogues is mentioned 26 various theories for the meaning of the menorah depictions have been proposed some of which suggest that it was a symbol of the heavenly spheres with god as the source of their light others present it as a sign of yearning for the temple and of the hopes for its renewal or a counter substitute for the christian cross according to hachlili the most probable of existing theories is one which proposes that the seven branches signified the seven days of the week while the menorah itself served as a daily ritual calendar with an additional candle being lit every day 27 28 levine suggests that it is possible that the menorah s very ability to take on varied interpretations contributed to its popularity 27 showbread table edit see main article showbread like the menorah the showbread table was also a central vessel in the biblical tabernacle and the temple of jerusalem though after the destruction its depiction was much less prominent 29 the massoretic version of the biblical text describes a table made of acacia wood and coated with gold while the septuagint has τράπεζαν χρυσίου καθαροῦ a table made of pure gold 30 the shape of the showbread table as implied by the biblical description was of rectangular form though josephus describes it as similar to the mensae delphicae 31 a three legged round table which was popular during the second temple period 32 visual depictions from the second temple period such as the aforementioned coins of mattathias antigonus the plaster fragments from the jewish quarter and the arch of titus align with the biblical rectangular description while the few depictions on the mosaics of late antique synagogues largely correspond to that of josephus these have been found in the synagogues of dura europos sepphoris and the samaritan synagogue of el hirbeh though the simple portrayal on the lintel of the synagogue in qasrin is of the rectangular style 33 according to hachlili the recurring style of the round table in the synagogues of dura europus sepphoris and el hirbeh points to a common source possibly a jewish pattern book 34 ritual objects edit main article jewish ceremonial art alongside the menorah in many jewish artistic compositions of late antiquity there appear several articles of ritual significance in israel the most common of these are the lulav ethrog shofar and an incense shovel while in the diaspora the incense shovel was replaced by an amphora vase or flask and a depiction of a torah scroll was added 35 the meaning of these representations is debated one approach maintains that they symbolize memory and yearning for the temple of jerusalem in which these articles had ritual significance another suggests that they consist of objects which were used in the synagogue setting a third interpretation posits that they represent the three high holidays which occur during the jewish month of tishrei relating the shofar to rosh hashana the incense shovel to yom kippur and the lulav and etrog to sukkoth if the vase or flask represents the water libation it too can be attributed to the festival of sukkoth during which a water libation was poured on the altar 36 the final approach sees these symbols as a combination of representative objects of both the temple and the synagogue pointing to the continuity of worship from one to the other 37 the temple and the ark of the scrolls edit 245 246 ce dura europos mural depicting solomon s temple mordecai and esther in the jewish artistic representations of late antiquity only two representations of the temple have been discovered one depiction on the shrine of the dura europus synagogue in modern day syria and one probable illustration on a gold glass from the jewish catacombs of rome 38 the depiction from dura europus bears similarities to the temple facade on the bar kokhba coins consisting of a tetrastyle sanctuary with two pairs of fluted columns and egyptian style capitals a portal flanked by two decorated pillars surmounted by a conch and a double door with an ornamented center and two knobs 39 the depiction on the gold glass is not as distinct it consists of a gabled shrine within a columned courtyard steps lead up to the entrance to the shrine on top of which is a menorah within a tympanum and on either side of which are two columns below the shrine is a second menorah flanked by ritual objects 39 hachlili concludes that the representation on the gold glass despite its graeco roman style and its difference from the other representations most probably depicts the temple as well her conclusion is drawn from the composition of the images placing the structure within a columned courtyard next to a menorah and from its relative similarity to the other representations of sanctuaries in the dura europus synagogue among them the temple representation mentioned above 39 it has been suggested that the temple imagery represents jewish hope for the restoration of the temple and the coming of the messiah 39 another structural depiction common in jewish art of late antiquity is the ark of the scrolls a chest which stood in the torah shrine of the synagogue and in which torah scrolls and scriptures were stored 40 generally made of wood only traces of the original arks have survived though much is known about them through their common depictions in artistic renditions 41 in the majority of these representations the ark stands on two to four legs is surmounted by a gable or a round top has a double door with geometric ornamentation 41 and is often flanked by two menorahs 42 all the representations of the ark of the scrolls in israel are depicted with their doors shut except for the drawing in bet she arim which shows open doors behind which are shelves bearing scrolls a feature it shares with all such depictions in the diaspora 41 it is most probable that the torah shrine with its gabled roof and columns and containing the ark of the scrolls was meant to resemble the facade of the jerusalem temple though a direct association is difficult to prove 43 as for its meaning artistic representations of the ark confirm that its role in the synagogue was not only practical but symbolic as well with it signifying the centrality of scripture and its study within the context of temple worship and its spiritual association with the community of the synagogue itself 44 see also edit zodiac mosaics in ancient synagogues references edit anderson james donald levy thomas evan 1995 the impact of rome on the periphery the case of palestina roman period 63 bce 324 ce the archaeology of society in the holy land p 459 1 2 3 roth cecil 2007 art in skolnik fred ed encyclopaedia judaica volume 2 alr az 2nd ed michigan thompson gale p 492 exodus 35 25 26 31 35 exodus 20 4 deuteronomy 5 8 1 2 3 roth cecil 2007 art in skolnik fred ed encyclopaedia judaica volume 2 alr az 2nd ed michigan thompson gale p 493 gruen erich s 2016 hellenism and persecution antiochus iv and the jews the construct of identity in hellenistic judaism essays on early jewish literature and history 1 ed de gruyter pp 333 358 jstor j ctvbkjxph 20 retrieved 2024 03 15 1 2 laderman shulamit 2021 11 24 jewish art in late antiquity the state of research in ancient jewish art brill research perspectives in religion and the arts 4 3 1 80 doi 10 1163 24688878 12340013 inactive 11 july 2025 issn 2468 886x cite journal cs1 maint doi inactive as of july 2025 link segré angelo 1946 antisemitism in hellenistic alexandria jewish social studies 8 2 127 136 issn 0021 6704 jstor 4464709 cohen maximilian 1961 jewish art at the time of the second temple in roth cecil ed jewish art an illustrated history new york mcgraw hill pp 124 125 1 2 ḥak̲lîlî rāḥēl 1988 ancient jewish art and archaeology in the land of israel brill archive isbn 978 90 04 08115 4 1 2 hachlili 1998 pp 311 312 elsner 2003 schubert kurt 2008 jewish art in late antiquity an example of jewish identity between judaism and christianity brill pp 39 51 isbn 978 90 474 2437 6 retrieved 2024 03 15 holcomb authors barbara drake boehm melanie june 2008 jewish art in late antiquity and early byzantium essay the metropolitan museum of art heilbrunn timeline of art history the met s heilbrunn timeline of art history retrieved 2024 04 04 cite web cs1 maint multiple names authors list link exodus 25 31 40 37 17 24 1 2 reich ronny 2014 a depiction of a menorah found near the temple mount and the shape of its base zeitschrift des deutschen palästina vereins 130 1 96 98 jstor 43664921 hachlili rachel 2001 the menorah the ancient seven armed candelabrum origin form and significance leiden brill pp 22 23 levine lee i 2005 the ancient synagogue the first thousand years 2nd ed new haven yale university press pp 306 358 360 602 603 hachlili rachel 2001 the menorah the ancient seven armed candelabrum origin form and significance leiden brill pp 41 50 hachlili rachel 2001 the menorah the ancient seven armed candelabrum origin form and significance leiden brill pp 112 113 hachlili rachel 2001 the menorah the ancient seven armed candelabrum origin form and significance leiden brill pp 51 59 hachlili rachel 2001 the menorah the ancient seven armed candelabrum origin form and significance leiden brill pp 385 477 hachlili 1998 pp 313 323 adler yonatan representations of the temple menorah in ancient jewish art in light of rabbinic halakhah and archaeological finds hebrew hachlili rachel 1998 ancient jewish art and archaeology in the diaspora leiden brill p 316 1 2 levine lee i 2005 the ancient synagogue the first thousand years 2nd ed new haven yale university press pp 603 604 hachlili 1998 p 344 hachlili rachel 2018 why did the menorah and not the showbread table evolve into the most important symbol of judaism the menorah ...