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50 similar work has been done with natural auditory categories for example bird songs 51 honeybees apis mellifera are able to form concepts of up and down 52 functional or associative categories edit perceptually unrelated stimuli may come to be responded to as members of a class if they have a common use or lead to common consequences an oft cited study by vaughan 1988 provides an example 53 vaughan divided a large set of unrelated pictures into two arbitrary sets a and b pigeons got food for pecking at pictures in set a but not for pecks at pictures in set b after they had learned this task fairly well the outcome was reversed items in set b led to food and items in set a did not then the outcome was reversed again and then again and so on vaughan found that after 20 or more reversals associating a reward with a few pictures in one set caused the birds to respond to the other pictures in that set without further reward as if they were thinking if these pictures in set a bring food the others in set a must also bring food that is the birds now categorized the pictures in each set as functionally equivalent several other procedures have yielded similar results 1 47 relational or abstract categories edit when tested in a simple stimulus matching to sample task described above many animals readily learn specific item combinations such as touch red if the sample is red touch green if the sample is green but this does not demonstrate that they distinguish between same and different as general concepts better evidence is provided if after training an animal successfully makes a choice that matches a novel sample that it has never seen before monkeys and chimpanzees do learn to do this as do pigeons if they are given a great deal of practice with many different stimuli however because the sample is presented first successful matching might mean that the animal is simply choosing the most recently seen familiar item rather than the conceptually same item a number of studies have attempted to distinguish these possibilities with mixed results 1 47 rule learning edit the use of rules has sometimes been considered an ability restricted to humans but a number of experiments have shown evidence of simple rule learning in primates 54 and also in other animals much of the evidence has come from studies of sequence learning in which the rule consists of the order in which a series of events occurs rule use is shown if the animal learns to discriminate different orders of events and transfers this discrimination to new events arranged in the same order for example murphy et al 2008 55 trained rats to discriminate between visual sequences for one group aba and bab were rewarded where a bright light and b dim light other stimulus triplets were not rewarded the rats learned the visual sequence although both bright and dim lights were equally associated with reward more importantly in a second experiment with auditory stimuli rats responded correctly to sequences of novel stimuli that were arranged in the same order as those previously learned similar sequence learning has been demonstrated in birds and other animals as well 56 memory edit the categories that have been developed to analyze human memory short term memory long term memory working memory have been applied to the study of animal memory and some of the phenomena characteristic of human short term memory e g the serial position effect have been detected in animals particularly monkeys 57 however most progress has been made in the analysis of spatial memory some of this work has sought to clarify the physiological basis of spatial memory and the role of the hippocampus other work has explored the spatial memory of scatter hoarder animals such as clark s nutcracker certain jays tits and certain squirrels whose ecological niches require them to remember the locations of thousands of caches 1 58 often following radical changes in the environment memory has been widely investigated in foraging honeybees apis mellifera which use both transient short term working memory that is non feeder specific and a feeder specific long term reference memory 59 60 61 memory induced in a free flying honeybee by a single learning trial lasts for days and by three learning trials for a lifetime 62 bombus terrestris audax workers vary in their effort investment towards memorising flower locations with smaller workers less able to be selective and thus less interested in which flowers are richer sugar sources 63 64 meanwhile bigger b t audax workers have more carrying capacity and thus more reason to memorise that information and so they do 63 64 slugs limax flavus have a short term memory of approximately 1 min and long term memory of 1 month 65 methods edit as in humans research with animals distinguishes between working or short term memory from reference or long term memory tests of working memory evaluate memory for events that happened in the recent past usually within the last few seconds or minutes tests of reference memory evaluate memory for regularities such as pressing a lever brings food or children give me peanuts habituation edit main article habituation this is one of the simplest tests for memory spanning a short time interval the test compares an animal s response to a stimulus or event on one occasion to its response on a previous occasion if the second response differs consistently from the first the animal must have remembered something about the first unless some other factor such as motivation sensory sensitivity or the test stimulus has changed delayed response edit delayed response tasks are often used to study short term memory in animals introduced by hunter 1913 a typical delayed response task presents an animal with a stimulus such as colored light and after a short time interval the animal chooses among alternatives that match the stimulus or are related to the stimulus in some other way in hunter s studies for example a light appeared briefly in one of three goal boxes and then later the animal chose among the boxes finding food behind the one that had been lighted 66 most research has been done with some variation of the delayed matching to sample task for example in the initial study with this task a pigeon was presented with a flickering or steady light then a few seconds later two pecking keys were illuminated one with a steady light and one with a flickering light the bird got food if it pecked the key that matched the original stimulus 67 a commonly used variation of the matching to sample task requires the animal to use the initial stimulus to control a later choice between different stimuli for example if the initial stimulus is a black circle the animal learns to choose red after the delay if it is a black square the correct choice is green ingenious variations of this method have been used to explore many aspects of memory including forgetting due to interference and memory for multiple items 1 radial arm maze edit main article radial arm maze the radial arm maze is used to test memory for spatial location and to determine the mental processes by which location is determined in a radial maze test an animal is placed on a small platform from which paths lead in various directions to goal boxes the animal finds food in one or more goal boxes having found food in a box the animal must return to the central platform the maze may be used to test both reference and working memory suppose for example that over a number of sessions the same four arms of an eight arm maze always lead to food if in a later test session the animal goes to a box that has never been baited this indicates a failure of reference memory on the other hand if the animal goes to a box that it has already emptied during the same test session this indicates a failure of working memory various confounding factors such as odor cues are carefully controlled in such experiments 68 water maze edit main article morris water navigation task the water maze is used to test an animal s memory for spatial location and to discover how an animal is able to determine locations typically the maze is a circular tank filled with water that has been made milky so that it is opaque located somewhere in the maze is a small platform placed just below the surface of the water when placed in the tank the animal swims around until it finds and climbs up on the platform with practice the animal finds the platform more and more quickly reference memory is assessed by removing the platform and observing the relative amount of time the animal spends swimming in the area where the platform had been located visual and other cues in and around the tank may be varied to assess the animal s reliance on landmarks and the geometric relations among them 69 novel object recognition test edit the novel object recognition nor test is an animal behavior test that is primarily used to assess memory alterations in rodents it is a simple behavioral test that is based on a rodents innate exploratory behavior the test is divided into three phases habituation training adaptation and test phase during the habituation phase the animal is placed in an empty test arena this is followed by the adaptation phase where the animal is placed in the arena with two identical objects in the third phase the test phase the animal is placed in the arena with one of the familiar objects from the previous phase and with one novel object based on the rodents innate curiosity the animals that remember the familiar object will spend more time on investigating the novel object 70 spatial cognition edit whether an animal ranges over a territory measured in square kilometers or square meters its survival typically depends on its ability to do such things as find a food source and then return to its nest sometimes such a task can be performed rather simply for example by following a chemical trail typically however the animal must somehow acquire and use information about locations directions and distances the following paragraphs outline some of the ways that animals do this 1 71 beacons animals often learn what their nest or other goal looks like and if it is within sight they may simply move toward it it is said to serve as a beacon landmarks when an animal is unable to see its goal it may learn the appearance of nearby objects and use these landmarks as guides researchers working with birds and bees have demonstrated this by moving prominent objects in the vicinity of nest sites causing returning foragers to hunt for their nest in a new location 1 dead reckoning also known as path integration is the process of computing one s position by starting from a known location and keeping track of the distances and directions subsequently traveled classic experiments have shown that the desert ant keeps track of its position in this way as it wanders for many meters searching for food though it travels in a randomly twisted path it heads straight home when it finds food however if the ant is picked up and released some meters to the east for example it heads for a location displaced by the same amount to the east of its home nest cognitive maps some animals appear to construct a cognitive map of their surroundings meaning that they acquire and use information that enables them to compute how far and in what direction to go to get from one location to another such a map like representation is thought to be used for example when an animal goes directly from one food source to another even though its previous experience has involved only travel between each source and home 1 72 research in this area 71 has also explored such topics as the use of geometric properties of the environment by rats and pigeons and the ability of rats to represent a spatial pattern in either radial arm mazes or water mazes spatial cognition is used in visual search when an animal or human searches their environment for specific objects to focus on among other objects in the environment 73 detour behaviour some animals appear to have an advanced understanding of their spatial environment and will not take the most direct route if this confers an advantage to them some jumping spiders take an indirect route to prey rather than the most direct route thereby indicating flexibility in behaviour and route planning and possibly insight learning 74 long distance navigation homing edit main article animal navigation many animals travel hundreds or thousands of miles in seasonal migrations or returns to breeding grounds they may be guided by the sun the stars the polarization of light magnetic cues olfactory cues winds or a combination of these 75 it has been hypothesized that animals such as apes and wolves are good at spatial cognition because this skill is necessary for survival some researchers argue that this ability may have diminished somewhat in dogs because humans have provided necessities such as food and shelter during some 15 000 years of domestication 76 77 78 timing edit further information time perception time of day circadian rhythms edit main article circadian rhythms the behavior of most animals is synchronized with the earth s daily light dark cycle thus many animals are active during the day others are active at night still others near dawn and dusk though one might think that these circadian rhythms are controlled simply by the presence or absence of light nearly every animal that has been studied has been shown to have a biological clock that yields cycles of activity even when the animal is in constant illumination or darkness 1 circadian rhythms are so automatic and fundamental to living things they occur even in plants 79 that they are usually discussed separately from cognitive processes 80 interval timing edit survival often depends on an animal s ability to time intervals for example rufous hummingbirds feed on the nectar of flowers and they often return to the same flower but only after the flower has had enough time to replenish its supply of nectar in one experiment hummingbirds fed on artificial flowers that quickly emptied of nectar but were refilled at some fixed time e g twenty minutes later the birds learned to come back to the flowers at about the right time learning the refill rates of up to eight separate flowers and remembering how long ago they had visited each one 81 the details of interval timing have been studied in a number of species one of the most common methods is the peak procedure in a typical experiment a rat in an operant chamber presses a lever for food a light comes on a lever press brings a food pellet at a fixed later time say 10 seconds and then the light goes off timing is measured during occasional test trials on which no food is presented and the light stays on on these test trials the rat presses the lever more and more until about 10 sec and then when no food comes gradually stops pressing the time at which the rat presses most on these te...