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eloped world subsection 2 1 the world bank and the development regime 2 1 1 success of the ida 2 1 2 the concerns of the ida 2 2 the development of underdevelopment 3 governmentality development as anti politics machine toggle governmentality development as anti politics machine subsection 3 1 the limits of governmentality 3 2 ecogovernmentality 4 agricultural development the green revolution 5 see also 6 references 7 sources 8 further reading toggle the table of contents anthropology of development 3 languages العربية فارسی پښتو edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia scientific study of humans as applied to institutions and economic growth part of a series on economic applied and development anthropology basic concepts barter commodification cultural capital debt embeddedness finance gift economy inalienable possessions limited good reciprocity redistribution value wealth singularization commodity pathway social capital spheres of exchange provisioning systems hunting gathering moral economy nomadic pastoralism pastoralism peasant economics shifting cultivation case studies prestations kula ring moka exchange potlatch gifting gifting remittances organ gifting shell money provisioning aché people hunter gatherers batek people colonialism and development the anti politics machine europe and the people without history political economy jim crow economy related articles anthropology of development critique of political economy culture of poverty formalist substantivist debate the great transformation heritage commodification nutritional anthropology original affluent society peasant economics political economy state formation major theorists paul bohannan alexander chayanov stanley diamond raymond firth maurice godelier david graeber jane i guyer keith hart marvin harris bronisław malinowski marcel mauss sidney mintz karl polanyi marshall sahlins heinrich schurtz harold k schneider eric wolf social and cultural anthropology v t e part of a series on anthropology outline history types archaeological biological cultural linguistic social archaeological aerial aviation battlefield biblical bioarchaeological environmental ethnoarchaeological experimental feminist forensic maritime paleoethnobotanical zooarchaeological biological anthrozoological biocultural evolutionary forensic molecular neurological nutritional paleoanthropological primatological social cultural applied art christian cognitive cyborg development digital ecological environmental economic political economy feminist food historical human rights organizations kinship legal media medical museums musical political psychological public religion symbolic transpersonal urban visual linguistic anthropological descriptive ethnological ethnopoetical historical ideology semiotic sociological research framework anthropometry ethnography cyber ethnology cross cultural comparison participant observation holism reflexivity thick description cultural relativism ethnocentrism emic and etic key concepts culture development ethnicity evolution sociocultural gender kinship and descent meme prehistory race society value colonialism postcolonialism key theories actor network theory alliance theory boasian anthropology cross cultural studies cultural materialism culture theory diffusionism feminism functionalism historical particularism historical materialism interpretive performance studies political economy practice theory structuralism post structuralism systems theory lists anthropologists by nationality anthropology by year bibliography journals list of indigenous peoples organizations v t e the anthropology of development is a term applied to a body of anthropological work which views development from a critical perspective the kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach typically adopted can be gleaned from a list questions posed by gow 1996 these questions involve anthropologists asking why if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty is poverty increasing why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis in short why is there such a lack of planned development this anthropology of development has been distinguished from development anthropology 1 2 development anthropology refers to the application of anthropological perspectives to the multidisciplinary branch of development studies it takes international development and international aid as primary objects in this branch of anthropology the term development refers to the social action made by different agents institutions business enterprise states independent volunteers who are trying to modify the economic technical political or and social life of a given place in the world especially in impoverished formerly colonized regions development anthropologists share a commitment to simultaneously critique and contribute to projects and institutions that create and administer western projects that seek to improve the economic well being of the most marginalized and to eliminate poverty while some theorists distinguish between the anthropology of development in which development is the object of study and development anthropology as an applied practice this distinction is increasingly thought of as obsolete 3 early approaches to development edit some describe the anthropological critique of development as one that pits modernization and an eradication of the indigenous culture but this is too reductive and not the case with the majority of scholarly work in fact most anthropologists who work in impoverished areas desire the same economic relief for the people they study as policymakers however they are wary about the assumptions and models on which development interventions are based anthropologists and others who critique development projects instead view western development itself as a product of western culture that must be refined in order to better help those it claims to aid the problem therefore is not that of markets driving out culture but of the fundamental blind spots of western developmental culture itself criticism often focuses therefore on the cultural bias and blind spots of western development institutions or modernization models that systematically represent non western societies as more deficient than the west erroneously assume that western modes of production and historical processes are repeatable in all contexts or that do not take into account hundreds of years of colonial exploitation by the west that has tended to destroy the resources of former colonial society most critically anthropologists argue that sustainable development requires at the very least more inclusion of the people who the project aims to target to be involved in the creation management and decision making process in the project creation in order to improve development pre wwii rhodes livingstone institute edit the british government established the rhodes livingstone institute in 1937 to conduct social science research in british central africa it was part of the colonial establishment although its head anthropologist max gluckman was a critic of colonial rule gluckman refused to describe colonialism as a simple case of culture contact since it was not a case of cultures mutually influencing each other but of the forced incorporation of africans into a foreign social political and economic system 4 the anthropologists of the institute were core members of what came to be known as the manchester school of anthropology noted for looking at issues of social justice such as apartheid and class conflict culture of poverty edit main article culture of poverty the term subculture of poverty later shortened to culture of poverty made its first prominent appearance in the ethnography five families mexican case studies in the culture of poverty 1959 by anthropologist oscar lewis lewis struggled to render the poor as legitimate subjects whose lives were transformed by poverty he argued that although the burdens of poverty were systemic and therefore imposed upon these members of society they led to the formation of an autonomous subculture as children were socialized into behaviors and attitudes that perpetuated their inability to escape the underclass in sociology and anthropology the concept created a backlash pushing scholars to abandon cultural justifications and negative descriptions of poverty fearing such analysis may be read as blaming the victim 5 modernization theory and its critics edit the most influential modernization theorist in development was walt rostow whose the stages of economic growth a non communist manifesto 1960 concentrates on the economic side of the modernization and especially the factors needed for a country to reach take off to self sustaining growth he argued that today s underdeveloped areas are in a similar situation to that of today s developed areas at some time in the past and that therefore the task in helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development by various means such as investment technology transfers and closer integration into the world market rostow s unilineal evolutionist model hypothesized all societies would progress through the same stages to a modernity defined by the west the model postulates that economic growth occurs in five basic stages of varying length 6 traditional society preconditions for take off take off drive to maturity age of high mass consumption as should be clear from the subtitle of his book rostow sought to provide a capitalist rebuttal to the unilinear marxist growth models being pursued in the newly independent communist regimes in the second and third world an effort that would lead to the green revolution to combat the red revolution george dalton and the substantivists edit george dalton applied the substantivist economic ideas of karl polanyi to economic anthropology and to development issues the substantivist approach demonstrated the ways in which economic activities in non market societies were embedded in other non economic social institutions such as kinship religion and political relations he therefore critiqued the formalist economic modelling of rostow he was the author of growth without development an economic survey of liberia 1966 with robert w clower and economic anthropology and development essays on tribal and peasant economies 1971 dependency theory edit main articles world systems theory and dependency theory dependency theory arose as a theory in latin america in reaction to modernization theory it argues that resources flow from a periphery of poor and underdeveloped states to a core of wealthy states enriching the latter at the expense of the former it is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the world system and hence poor countries will not follow rostow s predicted path of modernization dependency theory rejected rostow s view arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries but have unique features and structures of their own and importantly are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy and hence unable to change the system 7 immanuel wallerstein s world systems theory was the version of dependency theory that most north american anthropologists engaged with his theories are similar to dependency theory although he placed more emphasis on the system as system and focused on the developments of the core rather than periphery wallerstein also provided an historical account of the development of capitalism which had been missing from dependency theory 7 women in development wid edit main articles women in development and gender and development women in development wid is an approach to development projects that emerged in the 1970s calling for treatment of women s issues in development projects later the gender and development gad approach proposed more emphasis on gender relations rather than seeing women s issues in isolation 8 the wid school grew out of the pioneering work of esther boserup boserup s most notable book is the conditions of agricultural growth the economics of agrarian change under population pressure 9 this book presents a dynamic analysis embracing all types of primitive agriculture 10 drawing on boserup the wid theorists pointed out that the division of labour in agriculture is frequently gendered and that in societies practicing shifting cultivation it is women who conduct most of the agricultural work development projects however were skewed towards men on the assumption they were heads of households development discourse and the creation of the underdeveloped world edit a major critique of development from anthropologists came from arturo escobar s seminal book encountering development which argued that western development largely exploited non western peoples arturo escobar views international development as a means for the occident to keep control over the resources of its former colonies 11 escobar shows that between 1945 and 1960 while the former colonies were going through decolonization development plans helped to maintain the third world s dependency on the old metropole development projects themselves flourished in the wake of wwii and during the cold war when they were developed to 1 stop the spread of communism with the spread of capitalist markets and 2 create more prosperity for the west and its products by creating a global consumer demand for finished western products abroad some scholars blame the different agents for having only considered a small aspect of the local people s lives without analyzing broader consequences while others like dependency theory or escobar argue that development projects are doomed to failure for the fundamental ways they privilege western industry and corporations escobar s argument echos the earlier work of dependency theory and follows a larger critique more recently posed by foucault and other poststructuralists the world bank and the development regime edit the world bank group consists of multiple institutions including the international development association ida the international finance corporation ifc the international bank for reconstruction and development ibrd and the multilateral investment guarantee agency miga ida credits as well as ibrd loans support both de...