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uilt around a quad 555 timer ic called a 558 whose period is proportional to the resistance of the game controller and he used a software loop to measure the timers a single 14 31818 mhz master oscillator f m was divided by various ratios to produce all other required frequencies including microprocessor clock signals f m 14 video transfer counters and color burst samples f m 4 a solderable jumper on the main board allowed to switch between european 50 hz pal and usa 60 hz ntsc video the text and graphics screens have a complex arrangement for instance the scanlines were not stored in sequential areas of memory this complexity was reportedly due to wozniak s realization that the method would allow for the refresh of dynamic ram as a side effect as described above this method had no cost overhead to have software calculate or look up the address of the required scanline and avoided the need for significant extra hardware similarly in high resolution graphics mode color is determined by pixel position and thus can be implemented in software saving wozniak the chips needed to convert bit patterns to colors this also allowed the ability to draw text with subpixel rendering since orange and blue pixels appear half a pixel width farther to the right on the screen than green and purple pixels 29 the apple ii at first used data cassette storage like most other microcomputers of the time in 1978 the company introduced an external 5 1 4 inch floppy disk drive called disk ii stylized as disk attached through a controller card that plugs into one of the computer s expansion slots usually slot 6 the disk ii interface created by wozniak is regarded as an engineering masterpiece for its economy of electronic components 30 31 the approach taken in the disk ii controller is typical of wozniak s designs with a few small scale logic chips and a cheap prom programmable read only memory he created a functional floppy disk interface at a fraction of the component cost of standard circuit configurations case design edit the first production apple ii computers had hand molded cases these had visible bubbles and other lumps in them from the imperfect plastic molding process which was soon switched to machine molding 32 in addition the initial case design had no vent openings causing high heat buildup from the printed circuit board pcb and resulting in the plastic softening and sagging apple added vent holes to the case within three months of production customers with the original case could have them replaced at no charge circuit board revisions edit an apple ii circuit board from 1980 the white rectangle outline near the middle surrounds the three ram banks here all loaded with 16kx1 drams the apple ii s printed circuit board pcb underwent several revisions as steve wozniak and other apple engineers made modifications to it the earliest version was known as revision 0 and the first 6 000 units shipped used it later revisions added a color killer circuit to prevent color fringing when the computer was in text mode as well as modifications to improve the reliability of cassette i o revision 0 apple iis powered up in an undefined mode and displayed random characters from memory on screen requiring the user to press reset this was eliminated in later board revisions revision 0 apple iis could display only four colors in hi res mode but wozniak was able to increase this to six hi res colors on later board revisions technically it was eight but only six were visible 2 there are many revisions of the apple ii circuit board including revisions 0 1 2 3 4 7 and updated versions that are compliant with fcc electromagnetic radiation standards referred to as rfi revisions including rfi revision 1 revision c and revision d 33 34 apple ii pcbs have three ram banks for a total of 24 ram chips original apple iis had jumper switches to adjust ram size and ram configurations could be 4 8 12 16 20 24 32 36 or 48 kib the three smallest memory configurations used 4kx1 drams with larger ones using 16kx1 drams or mix of 4 kilobyte and 16 kilobyte banks the chips in any one bank have to be the same size the early apple ii models retained this feature but after a drop in dram prices apple redesigned the circuit boards without the jumpers so that only 16kx1 chips were supported a few months later they started shipping all machines with a full 48 kib complement of dram unlike most machines all integrated circuits on the apple ii pcb were socketed this cost more to manufacture and created the possibility of loose chips causing a system malfunction but it was considered preferable to make servicing and replacement of bad chips easier the apple ii pcb lacks any means of generating an interrupt request although expansion cards may generate one program code had to stop everything to perform any i o task like many of the computer s other idiosyncrasies this was due to cost reasons and steve wozniak assuming interrupts were not needed for gaming or using the computer as a teaching tool display and graphics edit main article apple ii graphics color on the apple ii series uses a quirk of the ntsc television signal standard which made color display relatively easy and inexpensive to implement the original ntsc television signal specification was black and white color was added later by adding a 3 58 megahertz subcarrier signal that was partially ignored by black and white tv sets color is encoded based on the phase of this signal in relation to a reference color burst signal the result is that the position size and intensity of a series of pulses define color information these pulses can translate into pixels on the computer screen with the possibility of exploiting composite artifact colors the apple ii display provides two pixels per subcarrier cycle when the color burst reference signal is turned on and the computer is attached to a color display it can display green by showing one alternating pattern of pixels magenta with an opposite pattern of alternating pixels and white by placing two pixels next to each other blue and orange are available by tweaking the pixel offset by half a pixel width in relation to the color burst signal the high resolution display offers more colors by compressing more and narrower pixels into each subcarrier cycle the coarse low resolution graphics display mode works differently as it can output a pattern of dots per pixel to offer more color options these patterns are stored in the character generator rom and replace the text character bit patterns when the computer is switched to low res graphics mode the text mode and low res graphics mode use the same memory region and the same circuitry is used for both a single hgr page occupied 8 kib of ram in practice this meant that the user had to have at least 12 kib of total ram to use hgr mode and 20 kib to use two pages early apple ii games from the 1977 1979 period often ran only in text or low resolution mode in order to support users with small memory configurations hgr not being near universally supported by games until 1980 sound edit rather than a dedicated sound synthesis chip the apple ii contains a toggle circuit that can only emit a click through a built in speaker or a line out jack more complex sounds such as music or audio samples are generated by software manually toggling the speaker at an appropriate frequency this technique requires careful and precise timing rendering it difficult to display moving graphics while sound is playing third party expansion cards were later released that addressed this problem a similar technique is used for cassette storage cassette output works the same as the speaker and input uses a simple zero crossing detector as a 1 bit audio digitizer routines in machine rom encode and decode data in frequency shift keying for the cassette programming languages edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed august 2022 learn how and when to remove this message initially the apple ii was shipped with integer basic encoded in the motherboard rom chips written by wozniak the interpreter enabled users to write software applications without needing to purchase additional development utilities written with game programmers and hobbyists in mind the language only supported the encoding of numbers in 16 bit integer format since it only supported integers between 32768 and 32767 signed 16 bit integer it was less suitable to business software and apple soon received complaints from customers because steve wozniak was busy developing the disk ii hardware he did not have time to modify integer basic for floating point support apple instead licensed microsoft s 6502 basic to create applesoft basic disk users normally purchased a so called language card which had applesoft in rom and was located below the integer basic rom in system memory the user could switch between either basic by typing fp or int in basic prompt apple also offered a different version of applesoft for cassette users which occupied low memory and was started by using the load command in integer basic as shipped apple ii incorporated a machine code monitor with commands for displaying and altering the computer s ram either one byte at a time or in blocks of 256 bytes at once this enabled programmers to write and debug machine code programs without further development software the computer powers on into the monitor rom displaying a prompt from there ctrl b enters basic or a machine language program can be loaded from cassette disk software can be booted with ctrl p followed by 6 referring to slot 6 which normally contained the disk ii controller a 6502 assembler was soon offered on disk 35 and later the ucsd compiler and operating system for the pascal language were made available the pascal system requires a 16 kib ram card to be installed in the language card position expansion slot 0 in addition to the full 48 kib of motherboard memory manual edit the first 1 000 or so apple iis shipped in 1977 with a 68 page mimeographed apple ii mini manual hand bound with brass paper fasteners this was the basis for the apple ii reference manual which became known as the red book for its red cover published in january 1978 all existing customers who sent in their warranty cards were sent free copies of the red book the apple ii reference manual contained the complete schematic of the entire computer s circuitry and a complete source listing of the monitor rom firmware that served as the machine s bios an apple ii manual signed by steve jobs in 1980 with the inscription julian your generation is the first to grow up with computers go change the world sold at auction for 787 484 in 2021 36 operating system edit the original apple ii came with an 8 kib rom containing a basic variant called integer basic as well as a resident monitor called the apple system monitor initially only cassette tape was available for storage which was considered too slow and unreliable for business use in late 1977 apple began to develop the disk ii floppy disk drive and required an operating system to utilize it the existing standard at the time was cp m but due to incompatibility with the 6502 processor and a perceived clunkiness apple contracted shepardson microsystems for 13 000 to write apple dos 37 38 at shepardson paul laughton developed the software in just 35 days a remarkably short deadline even for the time 39 the disk ii and apple dos were released in late 1978 the final and most popular version of this software was apple dos 3 3 apple dos was superseded by prodos which supported a hierarchical filesystem and larger storage devices with an optional third party z80 based expansion card 40 the apple ii could boot into the cp m operating system and run wordstar dbase ii and other cp m software apple released applesoft basic in 1977 a more advanced variant of the language which users could run instead of integer basic for more capabilities such as the ability to use floating point numbers some commercial apple ii software came on self booting disks and did not use standard dos disk formats this discouraged the copying or modifying of the software on the disks and improved loading speed third party devices and applications edit when the apple ii initially shipped in june 1977 no expansion cards were available for the slots this meant that the user did not have any way of connecting a modem or a printer one popular hack involved connecting a teletype machine to the cassette output wozniak s open architecture design and apple ii s multiple expansion slots permitted a wide variety of third party devices including peripheral cards such as serial controllers display controllers memory boards hard disks networking components and real time clocks there were plug in expansion cards such as the z 80 softcard that permitted apple ii to use the z80 processor and run programs for the cp m operating system 40 including the dbase ii database and the wordstar word processor the z80 card also allowed the connection to a modem and thereby to any networks that a user might have access to in the early days such networks were scarce but they expanded significantly with the development of bulletin board systems in later years there was also a third party 6809 card that allowed os 9 level one to be run third party sound cards greatly improved audio capabilities allowing simple music synthesis and text to speech functions apple ii accelerator cards doubled or quadrupled the computer s speed early apple iis were often sold with a sup r mod which allowed the composite video signal to be viewed in a television the soviet union radio electronics industry designed apple ii compatible computer agat roughly 12 000 agat 7 and 9 models were produced and they were widely used in soviet schools 41 agat 9 computers could run apple ii compatibility and native modes apple ii mode allowed to run a wider variety of presumably pirated apple ii software but at the expense of less ram because of that soviet developers preferred native mode over apple ii compatibility mode in 1978 bob bishop of apple computer inc programmed 9 apple ii computers to run the gameboard on the tv game show tic tac dough 42 each apple was responsible for displaying various contents for each box of the gameboard category x o bonus game numbers and amounts tic tac or dragon as well displaying custom messages and an active screensaver and in turn controlled by an altair 8800 system it was the first game show to use computerized graphics 43 reception edit advertisement for apple ii 1977 jesse adams stein wrote as the first company to release a consumer appliance micro computer apple computer offers us a clear view of this shift from a machine to an appliance but the company also had to negotiate the attitudes of its potential buyers bearing in mind social anxieties about the uptake of new...