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ho in schools and among their children and young people however this attitude is often counteracted by the lack of true commitment and willingness to really learn and become fluent underscored by a misunderstanding of its deep roots and purpose for southern arapaho the language is not quite as valued as it is on the wind river reservation most have lost interest in learning or maintaining it and until recently there were little to no efforts to preserve their dialect there is a small number who have begun online courses conducted via video in an attempt to revitalize a desire to learn it and popularity has increased over the past few years 9 histories edit early history edit see also gros ventre people around 3 000 years ago the ancestral arapaho speaking people heeteinono eino lived in the western great lakes region along the red river valley in what is classified as present day manitoba canada and minnesota united states 10 there the arapaho were an agricultural people who grew crops including maize 11 following european colonization in eastern canada together with the early cheyenne people hitesiino the arapaho were forced to migrate westward onto the eastern great plains by the ojibwe they were numerous and powerful having obtained guns from their french trading allies the ancestors of the arapaho people entered the great plains from the western great lakes region sometime before 1700 during their early history on the plains the arapaho lived on the northern plains from the south saskatchewan river in canada south to montana wyoming and western south dakota before the arapaho acquired horses they used domestic dogs as pack animals to pull their travois the arapaho acquired horses in the early 1700s from other tribes which changed their way of life they became nomadic people using the horses as pack and riding animals they could transport greater loads and travel more easily by horseback to hunt more easily and widely increasing their success in hunting on the plains gradually the arapaho moved farther south split into the closely allied northern and southern arapaho and established a large joint territory spanning land in southern montana most of wyoming the nebraska panhandle central and eastern colorado western oklahoma and extreme western kansas a large group of arapaho split from the main tribe and became an independent people commonly known as the gros ventre as named by the french or atsina the name gros ventre meaning big bellies in french was a misinterpretation of sign language between an indian guide and french explorers the gros ventre spoke an algonquian language similar to arapaho after the division they identified as a aninin meaning white clay people the arapaho often viewed the gros ventre as inferior and referred to them as hitúnĕna or hitouuteen meaning beggars 12 expansion on the plains edit once established the arapaho began to expand on the plains through trade warfare and alliances with other plains tribes around 1811 the arapaho made an alliance with the cheyenne hítesíínoʼ scarred one 13 their strong alliance with the cheyenne allowed the arapaho to greatly expand their hunting territory by 1826 the lakota dakota cheyenne and arapaho pushed the kiowa niiciiheihiinennoʼ kiowa tribe niiciiheihiiteen and invading comanche to the south conflict with the allied comanche and kiowa ended in 1840 when the two large tribes made peace with the arapaho and southern cheyenne and became their allies 14 chief little raven was the most notable arapaho chief he helped mediate peace among the nomadic southern plains tribes and would retain his reputation as a peace chief throughout the indian wars and reservation period 15 the alliance with the comanche and kiowa made the most southern arapaho bands powerful enough to enter the llano estacado in the texas panhandle one band of southern arapaho became so closely allied with the comanche that they were absorbed into the tribe adopted the comanche language and became a band of comanche known as the saria tʉhka sata teichas dog eaters along the upper missouri river the arapaho actively traded with the farming villages of the arikara mandan and hidatsa trading meat and hides for corn squash and beans the arikara referred to the arapaho as the colored stone village people possibly because gemstones from the southwest were among the trade items the hidatsa called them e tah leh or ita iddi buffalo path people referring to their hunting of bison conflict with euro american traders and explorers was limited at the time the arapaho freely entered various trading posts and trade fairs to exchange mostly bison hides and beaver furs for european goods such as firearms the arapaho frequently encountered fur traders in the foothills of the rocky mountains and the headwaters of the platte and arkansas they became well known traders on the plains and bordering rocky mountains the name arapaho may have been derived from the pawnee word tirapihu or larapihu meaning he buys or trades or traders the arapaho were a prominent trading group in the great plains region the term may also have come from european american traders referring to them by their crow apsáalooke aliláau name of alappahoʼ which meant people with many tattoos by custom the arapaho tattooed small circles on their bodies the name arapaho became widespread among the white traders enemies and warrior culture edit ledger drawing of a mounted arapaho warrior fighting a group of navajo or pueblo warriors c 1880 a large part of arapaho society was based around the warrior most young men sought this role after adopting use of the horse the arapaho quickly became master horsemen and highly skilled at fighting on horseback warriors had larger roles than combat in the society they were expected to keep peace among the camps provide food and wealth for their families and guard the camps from attacks like other plains indians including their cheyenne allies the arapaho have a number of distinct military societies each of the eight arapaho military societies had their own unique initiation rites pre and post battle ceremonies and songs regalia and style of combat unlike their cheyenne lakota and dakota allies the arapaho military societies were age based each age level had its own society for prestigious or promising warriors of the matching age 16 as the warriors aged they may graduate to the next society warriors often painted their face and bodies with war paint as well as their horses for spiritual empowerment each warrior created a unique design for the war paint which they often wore into battle feathers from birds particularly eagle feathers were also worn in battle as symbols of prestige and for reasons similar to war paint before setting out for war the warriors organized into war parties war parties were made up of individual warriors and a selected war chief the title of war chief must be earned through a specific number of acts of bravery in battle known as counting coup coups may include stealing horses while undetected touching a living enemy or stealing a gun from an enemy s grasp arapaho warriors used a variety of weapons including war clubs lances knives tomahawks bows shotguns rifles and pistols they acquired guns through trade at trading posts or trade fairs in addition to raiding soldiers or other tribes the arapaho fought with the pawnee hooxeihiinenno wolf people omaha howohoono ho chunk osage wosootiinen wosoo3iinen or wosoosiinen ponca same as omaha howohoono and kaw honoho east of their territory north of arapaho territory they fought with the crow houunenno blackfoot confederacy woo teenixteet or woo teenixtee3i people wearing black feet gros ventre hitouunenno gros ventre tribe hitouuteen flathead kookee ei3i arikara koonoonii3i people whose jaws break in pieces iron confederacy nehiyaw pwat assiniboine nihooneihteenootineihino yellow footed sioux plains woods cree nooku h nenno plains cree tribe nookuho rabbit people saulteaux plains ojibwa and nakoda stoney to the west they fought with eastern shoshone sosoni ii shoshone tribe sosoni iiteen and the ute wo o teenehi3i cut throats ute tribe wo o teennehhiiteen south of their territory they occasionally fought with the navajo coohoh oukutoo3i those who tie their hair in back of the head or in bunches apache coo3o enemy or teebe eisi3i they have their hair cut straight hanging straight down ti iihiinen killdeer people refers especially to jicarilla apache and various pueblo peoples cooh ookutoo3i they tie their hair in a bundle the cheyenne hitesiino sioux nootineihino kiowa niiciiheihiinenno river people or koh ówuunénno creek people kiowa tribe niiciiheihiiteen or koh ówuunteen plains apache 3oxooheinen pounder people and comanche coo3o sg and pl means enemy like apache 17 were enemies of the arapaho initially but became their allies together with their allies the arapaho also fought with invading us soldiers miners and settlers across arapaho territory and the territory of their allies 18 sand creek massacre edit main article sand creek massacre ledger drawing of a scene from the massacre by cheyenne eyewitness and artist howling wolf events leading to the sand creek massacre edit several skirmishes had ignited hatred from white settlers that lived in the area and left arapaho and cheyenne tribes in constant fear of being attacked by american troops for example on april 12 1864 a rancher brought troops to attack a group of 15 warriors who had asked to be rewarded for bringing his mules back to him the warriors acted in self defense and sent the troops running 19 word got back to colonel john chivington and they had told him the indians shot first he also heard there were 175 cattle head stolen from the government chivington ordered troops to find and chastise the indians soldiers burned villages and sought out to kill indians the violence escalating months before the sand creek massacre in an effort to establish peace john evans attempted to extend an offer of refuge and protection to friendly indians however these efforts were trampled by general curtis 20 military expedition against tribes between the platte and arkansas rivers by this point both arapaho and cheyenne tribes thought that an all out war of extermination was about to rage against them so they quickly fled and curtis and his men never met them 21 sand creek massacre edit present day marker of the sand creek massacre site in kiowa county colorado in november 1864 the colorado militia led by colonel john chivington massacred a small village of cheyenne and arapaho in the sand creek massacre 22 according to a historical narrative on the event titled chief left hand by margaret coel there were several events that led to the colorado militia s attack on the village governor evans desired to hold title to the resource rich denver boulder area the government trust officials avoided chief left hand a linguistically gifted southern arapaho chief when executing their treaty that transferred the title of the area away from indian trust the local cavalry was stretched thin by the demands of the civil war while indian warriors acting independently of chief left hand raided their supply lines a group of arapaho and cheyenne elders with women and children had been denied their traditional wintering grounds in boulder by the cavalry and were ordered to come to fort lyon for food and protection or be considered hostile on arrival at lyon chief left hand and his followers were accused of violence by colonel chivington chief left hand and his people got the message that only those indians that reported to fort lyon would be considered peaceful and all others would be considered hostile and ordered killed confused chief left hand and his followers turned away and traveled a safe distance away from the fort to camp a traitor gave colonel chivington directions to the camp he and his battalion stalked and attacked the camp early the next morning rather than heroic colonel chivington s efforts were considered a gross embarrassment to the cavalry since he attacked peaceful elders women and children 23 as a result of his war efforts instead of receiving the promotion to which he aspired he was relieved of his duties on october 14 1865 almost a year after the sand creek massacre the arapaho and cheyenne signed a new treaty with the us government the treaty addressed the future of conflict between the two tribes and the us government it outlined new boundaries it forced the tribe to relinquish claims to other lands amongst many other demands the treaty spanning nine articles was ratified on may 22 1866 and then later proclaimed on february 2 1867 24 eugene ridgely a cheyenne northern arapaho artist is credited with bringing to light the fact that arapahos were among the victims of the massacre his children gail ridgely benjamin ridgley and eugene snowball ridgely were instrumental in having the massacre site designated as a national historic site in 1999 benjamin and gail ridgley organized a group of northern arapaho runners to run from limon colorado to ethete wyoming in memory of their ancestors who were forced to run for their lives after being attacked and pursued by colonel chivington and his battalion their efforts will be recognized and remembered by the sand creek massacre signs that appear along the roadways from limon to casper wyoming and then to ethete why the sand creek massacre occurred edit the violence that ensued was deeply rooted in the indian hating by american settlers in the area their perception was that their nascent settlements were indeed surrounded by indians 25 and their inexperience in dealing with indians was what sparked the sand creek massacre indian wars on the southern plains edit southern arapaho women s leggings and moccasins c 1910 oklahoma history center the events at sand creek sparked outrage among the arapaho and cheyenne resulting in three decades of war between them and the united states much of the hostilities took place in colorado leading to many of the events being referred to as part of the so called colorado war battles and hostilities elsewhere on the southern plains such as in kansas and texas are often included as part of the comanche wars during the wars the arapaho and cheyenne allies the kiowa comanche and plains apache would participate in some battles alongside them the lakota from the north came down into northern colorado to help the arapaho and cheyenne there the battle of julesburg resulted from a force of about 1 000 allied northern arapaho cheyenne mostly from the dog soldiers warrior society and lakota from the sicangu and oglala sub tribes the point of the raid was retaliation for the events at the sand creek massacre months earlier the allied indian forces attacked settlers and us army forces around the valley of the south platte river near julesburg colorado the battle was a decisive indian victory resulting in 14 soldiers and four civilia...