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between armenian and greek and common features between these two languages can be explained as a result of contact contact is also the most likely explanation for morphological features shared by armenian with indo iranian and balto slavic languages 83 it has been suggested that the bronze age trialeti vanadzor culture and sites such as the burial complexes at verin and nerkin naver are indicative of an indo european presence in armenia by the end of the 3rd millennium bce 84 85 86 87 88 89 73 the controversial armenian hypothesis put forward by some scholars such as thomas gamkrelidze and vyacheslav v ivanov proposes that the indo european homeland was around the armenian highland 90 this theory was partially confirmed by the research of geneticist david reich et al 2018 among others 91 92 93 similarly grolle et al 2018 supports not only a homeland for armenians on the armenian highlands but also that the armenian highlands are the homeland for the pre proto indo europeans 94 a large genetic study in 2022 showed that many armenians are direct patrilineal descendants of the yamnaya 95 genetic studies explain armenian diversity by several mixtures of eurasian populations that occurred between 3000 and 2000 bce but genetic signals of population mixture cease after 1200 bce when bronze age civilizations in the eastern mediterranean world suddenly and violently collapsed armenians have since remained isolated and genetic structure within the population developed 500 years ago when armenia was divided between the ottomans and the safavid empire in iran 96 97 a genetic study wang et al 2018 supports the indigenous origin for armenians in a region south of the caucasus which he calls greater caucasus 98 in the bronze age several states flourished in the area of greater armenia including the hittite empire at the height of its power in the 14th century bce mitanni south western historical armenia 1500 1300 bce and hayasa azzi 1500 1200 bce soon after hayasa azzi came arme shupria 1300s 1190 bce the nairi confederation 1200 900 bce and the kingdom of urartu 860 590 bce who successively established their sovereignty over the armenian highland each of the aforementioned nations and tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the armenian people 99 under ashurbanipal 669 627 bce the assyrian empire reached the caucasus mountains modern armenia georgia and azerbaijan 100 luwianologist john d hawkins proposed that hai people were possibly mentioned in the 10th century bce hieroglyphic luwian inscriptions from carchemish 101 a e redgate later clarified that these hai people may have been armenians 102 antiquity the kingdom of armenia at its greatest extent under tigranes the great 95 55 bce the first geographical entity that was called armenia by neighboring peoples such as by hecataeus of miletus and on the achaemenid behistun inscription was the satrapy of armenia established in the late 6th century bce under the orontid yervanduni dynasty within the achaemenid persian empire the orontids later ruled the independent kingdom of armenia at its zenith 95 65 bce under the imperial reign of tigran the great a member of the artaxiad artashesian dynasty the kingdom of armenia extended from the caucasus all the way to what is now central turkey lebanon and northern iran the arsacid kingdom of armenia itself a branch of the arsacid dynasty of parthia was the first state to adopt christianity as its religion it had formerly been adherent to armenian paganism which was influenced by zoroastrianism 103 while later on adopting a few elements regarding identification of its pantheon with greco roman deities 104 in the early years of the 4th century likely 301 ce 105 partly in defiance of the sassanids it seems 106 in the late parthian period armenia was a predominantly zoroastrian adhering land 103 but by the christianisation previously predominant zoroastrianism and paganism in armenia gradually declined 106 107 this is the period that an armenian community was established in judea modern day palestine israel leading to the armenian quarter of jerusalem 43 later on to further strengthen armenian national identity mesrop mashtots invented the armenian alphabet in 405 ce this event ushered the golden age of armenia during which many foreign books and manuscripts were translated to armenian by mesrop s pupils armenia lost its sovereignty again in 428 ce to the rivaling byzantine and sassanid persian empires until the muslim conquest of persia overran also the regions in which armenians lived middle ages ptolemy cosmographia 1467 in 885 ce the armenians reestablished themselves as a sovereign kingdom under the leadership of ashot i of the bagratid dynasty a considerable portion of the armenian nobility and peasantry fled the byzantine occupation of bagratid armenia in 1045 and the subsequent invasion of the region by seljuk turks in 1064 they settled in large numbers in cilicia an anatolian region where armenians were already established as a minority since roman times in 1080 they founded an independent armenian principality then kingdom of cilicia which became the focus of armenian nationalism the armenians developed close social cultural military and religious ties with nearby crusader states 108 but eventually succumbed to mamluk invasions in the next few centuries djenghis khan timurids and the tribal turkic federations of the ak koyunlu and the kara koyunlu ruled over the armenians early modern history persis parthia armenia rest fenner published in 1835 armenia mesopotamia babylonia and assyria with adjacent regions karl von spruner published in 1865 from the early 16th century both western armenia and eastern armenia fell under iranian safavid rule 109 110 owing to the century long turco iranian geo political rivalry that would last in western asia significant parts of the region were frequently fought over between the two rivalling empires from the mid 16th century with the peace of amasya and decisively from the first half of the 17th century with the treaty of zuhab until the first half of the 19th century 111 eastern armenia was ruled by the successive iranian safavid afsharid and qajar empires while western armenia remained under ottoman rule in the late 1820s the parts of historic armenia under iranian control centering on yerevan and lake sevan all of eastern armenia were incorporated into the russian empire following iran s forced ceding of the territories after its loss in the russo persian war 1826 1828 and the outcoming treaty of turkmenchay 112 western armenia however remained in ottoman hands modern history the ethnic cleansing of armenians during the final years of the ottoman empire is widely considered a genocide resulting in an estimated 1 2 million victims 113 114 the first wave of persecution was in the years 1894 to 1896 the second one culminating in the events of the armenian genocide in 1915 and 1916 with world war i in progress the ottoman empire accused the christian armenians as liable to ally with imperial russia and used it as a pretext to deal with the entire armenian population as an enemy within their empire governments of the republic of turkey since that time have consistently rejected charges of genocide typically arguing either that those armenians who died were simply in the way of a war or that killings of armenians were justified by their individual or collective support for the enemies of the ottoman empire passage of legislation in various foreign countries condemning the persecution of the armenians as genocide has often provoked diplomatic conflict see recognition of the armenian genocide following the breakup of the russian empire in the aftermath of world war i for a brief period from 1918 to 1920 armenia was an independent republic plagued by socio economic crises such as large scale muslim uprisings in late 1920 the communists came to power following an invasion of armenia by the red army in 1922 armenia became part of the transcaucasian sfsr of the soviet union later on forming the armenian soviet socialist republic 1936 to 21 september 1991 in 1991 armenia regained its independence from the ussr also in 1991 the ethnic armenian majority nagorno karabakh republic later the republic of artsakh declared independence from azerbaijan which lasted until 2023 geographic distribution armenia armenian presence in the early 20th century 50 25 50 25 armenian settlement area today armenians in the ottoman empire and the russian empire before world war i armenians in uyezds of the russian empire according to the 1897 census armenians in uyezds of the russian empire according to the 1916 census armenians are indigenous to the armenian highlands and their presence in this region dates back 4 000 years according to legend hayk the patriarch and founder of the armenian nation led armenians to victory over bel of babylon and settled in the armenian highland 115 today with a population of 3 5 million although more recent estimates place the population closer to 2 9 million they constitute an overwhelming majority in armenia armenians in the diaspora informally refer to them as hayastantsi s armenian հայաստանցի meaning those that are from armenia that is those born and raised in armenia they as well as the armenians of iran and russia speak the eastern dialect of the armenian language the country itself is secular as a result of soviet domination but most of its citizens identify themselves as apostolic armenian christian diaspora main article armenian diaspora see also armenian population by country while the largest armenian diaspora populations reside in russia the united states france and other countries small armenian trading and religious communities have existed outside armenia for centuries a prominent community has continued since the 4th century in the holy land and one of the quarters of the walled old city of jerusalem is called the armenian quarter 43 an armenian catholic monastic community of 35 founded in 1717 exists on an island near venice italy the region of western armenia was an influential part of the eastern roman empire which was absorbed by the ottoman empire in the 16th century the armenian population of the ottoman empire is estimated to have been between 1 5 and 2 5 million in the early 20th century 113 116 most of the modern armenian diaspora consists of armenians scattered throughout the world as a direct consequence of massacres and genocide in the ottoman empire however armenian communities in iran georgia tbilisi and syria existed since antiquity 49 during the middle ages and the centuries prior to the genocide additional communities were formed in greece bulgaria hungary kievan rus and the territories of russia poland austria and lebanon there are also remnants of historic communities in turkey istanbul 117 india myanmar thailand belgium the netherlands portugal italy israel palestine iraq romania serbia ethiopia sudan and egypt the nagorno karabakh region in azerbaijan had an overwhelming armenian majority until 2023 from 1991 to 2023 the region was governed by the armenia backed republic of artsakh a largely unrecognized breakway state after azerbaijan defeated artsakh in 2023 after decades of conflict nearly the entire population fled into armenia within the diasporan armenian community there is an unofficial classification of the different kinds of armenians for example armenians who originate from iran are referred to as parskahay armenian պարսկահայ while armenians from lebanon are usually referred to as lipananahay armenian լիբանանահայ armenians of the diaspora are the primary speakers of the western dialect of the armenian language this dialect has considerable differences with eastern armenian but speakers of either of the two variations can usually understand each other eastern armenian in the diaspora is primarily spoken in iran and european countries such as ukraine russia and georgia where they form a majority in the samtskhe javakheti province in diverse communities such as in the united states and canada where many different kinds of armenians live together there is a tendency for the different groups to cluster together culture main article culture of armenia religion main articles armenian apostolic church religion in armenia and armenian mythology before christianity armenians adhered to armenian indo european native religion a type of indigenous polytheism that pre dated the urartu period but which subsequently adopted several greco roman and iranian religious characteristics 118 119 in 301 ad armenia adopted christianity as a state religion becoming the first state to do so 51 the claim is primarily based on the fifth century work of agathangelos titled the history of the armenians agathangelos witnessed at first hand the baptism of the armenian king trdat iii c 301 314 a d by st gregory the illuminator 120 trdat iii decreed christianity was the state religion 121 the etchmiadzin cathedral the mother church of the armenian apostolic church was established in 301 ad armenia established a church that still exists independently of both the catholic and the eastern orthodox churches having become so in 451 ad as a result of its stance regarding the council of chalcedon 51 today this church is known as the armenian apostolic church which is a part of the oriental orthodox communion not to be confused with the eastern orthodox communion during its later political eclipses armenia depended on the church to preserve and protect its unique identity the original location of the armenian catholicosate is echmiadzin however the continuous upheavals which characterized the political scenes of armenia made the political power move to safer places the church center moved as well to different locations together with the political authority therefore it eventually moved to cilicia as the holy see of cilicia 122 armenia has at times constituted a christian island in a mostly muslim region there are however a minority of ethnic armenian muslims known as hamshenis and crypto armenians although the former are often regarded as a distinct group or subgroup in the late tsarist caucasus individual conversions of muslims yazidis jews and assyrians into armenian christianity have been documented 123 the history of the jews in armenia dates back over 2 000 years the armenian kingdom of cilicia had close ties to european crusader states later on the deteriorating situation in the region led the bishops of armenia to elect a catholicos in etchmiadzin the original seat of the catholicosate in 1441 a new catholicos was elected in etchmiadzin in the person of kirakos virapetsi while krikor moussapegiants preserved his title as catholicos of cilicia therefore since 1441 there have been two catholicosates in the armenian church with equal rights and privileges and with their respective jurisdictions the primacy of honor of the catholicosate of etchmiadzin has always been recognized by the ...