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wikipedia the free encyclopedia highly sensitive semiconductor electronic device the structure of the silicon apd an avalanche photodiode apd is a highly sensitive type of photodiode which in general are semiconductor diodes that convert light into electricity via the photovoltaic effect apds use materials and a structure optimised for operating with high reverse bias voltage approaching the reverse breakdown voltage such that charge carriers generated by the photovoltaic effect are multiplied by an avalanche breakdown thus they can be used to detect relatively small amounts of light from a functional standpoint they can be regarded as the semiconductor analog of photomultiplier tubes unlike solar cells they are not optimised for generating electricity from light but rather for detection of incoming photons typical applications for apds are laser rangefinders long range fiber optic telecommunication positron emission tomography and particle physics history edit the avalanche photodiode was invented by japanese engineer jun ichi nishizawa in 1952 1 however study of avalanche breakdown micro plasma defects in silicon and germanium and the investigation of optical detection using p n junctions predate this patent principle of operation edit photodiodes generally operate by impact ionization whereby a photon provides the energy to separate charge carriers in the semiconductor material into a positive and negative pair which can thus cause a charge flow through the diode by applying a high reverse bias voltage any photoelectric effect in the diode can be multiplied by the avalanche effect thus the apd can be thought of as applying a high gain effect to the induced photocurrent in general the higher the reverse voltage the higher the gain a standard silicon apd typically can sustain 100 200 v of reverse bias before breakdown leading to a gain factor of around 100 however by employing alternative doping and bevelling structural techniques compared to traditional apds a it is possible to create designs where greater voltage can be applied 1500 v before breakdown is reached and hence a greater operating gain 1000 is achieved among the various expressions for the apd multiplication factor m an instructive expression is given by the formula m 1 1 0 l α x d x displaystyle m frac 1 1 int _ 0 l alpha x dx where l is the space charge boundary for electrons and α displaystyle alpha is the multiplication coefficient for electrons and holes this coefficient has a strong dependence on the applied electric field strength temperature and doping profile since apd gain varies strongly with the applied reverse bias and temperature it is necessary to closely monitor the reverse voltage to keep a stable gain geiger mode counting edit if very high gain is needed 10 5 to 10 6 detectors related to apds called spads single photon avalanche diodes can be used and operated with a reverse voltage above a typical apd s breakdown voltage in this case the photodetector needs to have its signal current limited and quickly diminished active and passive current quenching techniques have been used for this purpose spads that operate in this high gain regime are sometimes referred to being in geiger mode this mode is particularly useful for single photon detection provided that the dark count event rate and afterpulsing probability are sufficiently low materials edit in principle any semiconductor material can be used as a multiplication region silicon will detect in the visible and near infrared with low multiplication noise excess noise germanium ge will detect infrared out to a wavelength of 1 7 μm but has high multiplication noise ingaas will detect out to longer than 1 6 μm and has less multiplication noise than ge it is normally used as the absorption region of a heterostructure diode most typically involving inp as a substrate and as a multiplication layer 2 this material system is compatible with an absorption window of roughly 0 9 1 7 μm ingaas exhibits a high absorption coefficient at the wavelengths appropriate to high speed telecommunications using optical fibers so only a few micrometres of ingaas are required for nearly 100 light absorption 2 the excess noise factor is low enough to permit a gain bandwidth product in excess of 100 ghz for a simple inp ingaas system 3 and up to 400 ghz for ingaas on silicon 4 therefore high speed operation is possible commercial devices are available to speeds of at least 10 gbit s 5 gallium nitride based diodes have been used for operation with ultraviolet light hgcdte based diodes operate in the infrared typically at wavelengths up to about 14 μm but require cooling to reduce dark currents very low excess noise can be achieved in this material system structure edit apds are often not constructed as simple p n junctions but have more complex designs such as p i p n 6 performance limits edit apd applicability and usefulness depends on many parameters two of the larger factors are quantum efficiency which indicates how well incident optical photons are absorbed and then used to generate primary charge carriers and total leakage current which is the sum of the dark current photocurrent and noise electronic dark noise components are series and parallel noise series noise which is the effect of shot noise is basically proportional to the apd capacitance while the parallel noise is associated with the fluctuations of the apd bulk and surface dark currents gain noise excess noise factor edit another noise source is the excess noise factor enf it is a multiplicative correction applied to the noise that describes the increase in the statistical noise specifically poisson noise due to the multiplication process the enf is defined for any device such as photomultiplier tubes silicon solid state photomultipliers and apds that multiplies a signal and is sometimes referred to as gain noise at a gain m it is denoted by enf m and can often be expressed as enf κ m 2 1 m 1 κ displaystyle text enf kappa m left 2 frac 1 m right 1 kappa where κ displaystyle kappa is the ratio of the hole impact ionization rate to that of electrons for an electron multiplication device it is given by the hole impact ionization rate divided by the electron impact ionization rate it is desirable to have a large asymmetry between these rates to minimize enf m since enf m is one of the main factors that limit among other things the best possible energy resolution obtainable conversion noise fano factor edit the noise term for an apd may also contain a fano factor which is a multiplicative correction applied to the poisson noise associated with the conversion of the energy deposited by a charged particle to the electron hole pairs which is the signal before multiplication the correction factor describes the decrease in the noise relative to poisson statistics due to the uniformity of conversion process and the absence of or weak coupling to bath states in the conversion process in other words an ideal semiconductor would convert the energy of the charged particle into an exact and reproducible number of electron hole pairs to conserve energy in reality however the energy deposited by the charged particle is divided into the generation of electron hole pairs the generation of sound the generation of heat and the generation of damage or displacement the existence of these other channels introduces a stochastic process where the amount of energy deposited into any single process varies from event to event even if the amount of energy deposited is the same further influences edit the underlying physics associated with the excess noise factor gain noise and the fano factor conversion noise is very different however the application of these factors as multiplicative corrections to the expected poisson noise is similar in addition to excess noise there are limits to device performance associated with the capacitance transit times and avalanche multiplication time 2 the capacitance increases with increasing device area and decreasing thickness the transit times both electrons and holes increase with increasing thickness implying a tradeoff between capacitance and transit time for performance the avalanche multiplication time times the gain is given to first order by the gain bandwidth product which is a function of the device structure and most especially κ displaystyle kappa see also edit avalanche diode avalanche breakdown single photon avalanche diode references edit jun ichi nishizawa engineer sophia university special professor japan quality review archived from the original on 2018 07 21 retrieved 2017 05 15 1 2 3 tsang w t ed 1985 semiconductors and semimetals vol 22 part d photodetectors academic press tarof l e 1991 planar inp gaas avalanche photodetector with gain bandwidth product in excess of 100 ghz electronics letters 27 1 34 36 bibcode 1991ell 27 34t doi 10 1049 el 19910023 wu w hawkins a r bowers j e 1997 design of ingaas si avalanche photodetectors for 400 ghz gain bandwidth product in park yoon soo ramaswamy ramu v eds optoelectronic integrated circuits vol 3006 pp 36 47 bibcode 1997spie 3006 38w doi 10 1117 12 264251 s2cid 109777495 cite book journal ignored help campbell j c 2007 recent advances in telecommunications avalanche photodiodes journal of lightwave technology 25 1 109 121 bibcode 2007jlwt 25 109c doi 10 1109 jlt 2006 888481 s2cid 1398387 avalanche photodiode construction working its applications 25 november 2021 further reading edit avalanche photodiode a user guide avalanche photodiode low noise apd receivers kagawa s 1981 fully ion implanted p n germanium avalanche photodiodes applied physics letters 38 6 429 431 bibcode 1981apphl 38 429k doi 10 1063 1 92385 hyun kyung sook park chan yong 1997 breakdown characteristics in inp ingaas avalanche photodiode with p i n multiplication layer structure journal of applied physics 81 2 974 bibcode 1997jap 81 974h doi 10 1063 1 364225 selecting the right apd pulsed laserdiodes and avalanche photodiodes for industrial applications excelitas technologies photonic detectors v t e electronic components semiconductor devices mos transistors transistor nmos pmos bicmos biofet chemical field effect transistor chemfet complementary mos cmos depletion load nmos fin field effect transistor finfet floating gate mosfet fgmos insulated gate bipolar transistor igbt isfet ldmos mos field effect transistor mosfet multi gate field effect transistor mugfet power mosfet thin film transistor tft vmos umos qfet tunnel field effect transistor tfet high electron mobility transistor hemt rf cmos native transistor other transistors bipolar junction transistor bjt darlington transistor diffused junction transistor field effect transistor fet junction gate fet jfet organic fet ofet light emitting transistor let pentode transistor point contact transistor programmable unijunction transistor put static induction transistor sit tetrode transistor nanoscale vacuum channel transistor nvct single electron transistor set heterojunction bipolar transistor hbt mesfet heterostructure emitter bipolar transistor hebt itfet avalanche transistor junctionless nanowire transistor jlnt schottky transistor spin transistor ballistic collection transistor ballistic deflection transistor bdt drift field transistor organic electrochemical transistor oect spacistor surface barrier transistor synaptic transistor oxide thin film transistor nomfet grown junction transistor eosfet alloy junction transistor fe fet dna field effect transistor dnafet diodes avalanche diode shockley diode selenium rectifier fast diode single photon avalanche diode spad constant current diode cld crd gunn diode varicap impatt diode metal insulator metal diode mim diode transient voltage suppression diode tvs diode laser diode ld light emitting diode led organic light emitting diode oled photodiode pin diode p n diode tunnel diode avalanche photodiode apd solar cell multi junction solar cell mj hybrid solar cell schottky junction solar cell plasmonic solar cell heterojunction solar cell hjt schottky diode step recovery diode srd zener diode resonant tunneling diode rtd photoreflector backward diode geometric diode lr diode chua s diode baritt diode stabistor phosphorescent organic light emitting diode pholed thin film diode superluminescent diode sld josephson diode hole accumulation diode had silicon photomultiplier sipm metal rectifier bifacial solar cells bsc integrated circuits hybrid integrated circuit hic mixed signal integrated circuit mos integrated circuit mos ic three dimensional integrated circuit 3d ic photonic integrated circuit pic application specific integrated circuit asic field programmable gate array fpga system on a chip soc other devices diac heterostructure barrier varactor light emitting capacitor lec memistor memristor memtransistor memory cell metal oxide varistor mov organic semiconductor photodetector silicon controlled rectifier scr silicon controlled switch scs solaristor static induction thyristor sith thyristor trancitor triac varicap vertical cavity surface emitting laser vcsel gate turn off thyristor gto integrated gate commutated thyristor igct unijunction transistor ujt quantum cascade laser qcl photoresistor quantum dot display quantum dot solar cell photoelectrochemical cell dye sensitized solar cell plasmonic solar cell quantum dot laser quadrac interband cascade laser icl oscillistor mos composite static induction thyristor csmt mos controlled thyristor mct resistive opto isolator ro emitter turn off thyristor eto trisil quantum well infrared photodetector qwip quantum cascade detector qcd resonant cavity enhanced photo detector rce golay cell hybrid pixel detector semiconductor detector voltage regulators linear regulator low dropout regulator switching regulator buck boost buck boost split pi ćuk sepic charge pump switched capacitor vacuum tubes standard acorn tube audion beam tetrode barretter compactron 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devices hall effect sensor squid sp...