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d the region and successfully defended it from purépecha s attempts to take it back in 1479 axayacatl launched a major invasion of the purépecha empire with 32 000 aztec soldiers 43 purépecha met them just across the border with 50 000 soldiers and scored a resounding victory killing or capturing over 90 of the aztec army axayacatl himself was wounded in the battle retreated to tenochtitlan and never engaged the purépecha in battle again 44 in 1472 nezahualcoyotl died and his son nezahualpilli was enthroned as the new huetlatoani of texcoco 45 this was followed by the death of axayacatl in 1481 44 axayacatl was replaced by his brother tizoc tizoc s reign was notoriously brief he proved to be ineffectual and did not significantly expand the empire tizoc was likely assassinated by his own nobles five years into his rule apparently due to his incompetence 44 later years of expansion map of the expansion of the empire showing the areas that have been conquered by the aztec rulers 46 tizoc was succeeded by his brother ahuitzotl in 1486 like his predecessors the first part of ahuitzotl s reign was spent suppressing rebellions that were commonplace due to the indirect nature of aztec rule 44 ahuitzotl then began a new wave of conquests including the oaxaca valley and the soconusco coast ahuitzotl conquered the border city of otzoma and turned the city into a military outpost due to increased border skirmishes with the purépecha 47 the population of otzoma was either killed or dispersed in the process 43 the purépecha subsequently established fortresses nearby to protect against aztec expansion 43 ahuitzotl responded by expanding further west to the pacific coast of guerrero by the reign of ahuitzotl the mexica were the largest and most powerful faction in the aztec triple alliance 48 building on the prestige the mexica had acquired over the course of the conquests ahuitzotl began to use the title huehuetlatoani eldest speaker to distinguish himself from the rulers of texcoco and tlacopan 44 the alliance still technically ran the empire but the mexica emperor now assumed nominal if not actual seniority ahuitzotl was succeeded by his nephew moctezuma ii in 1502 moctezuma ii spent most of his reign consolidating power in lands conquered by his predecessors 47 in 1515 aztec armies commanded by the tlaxcalan general tlahuicole invaded the purépecha empire once again 49 the aztec army failed to take any territory and was mostly restricted to raiding the purépecha defeated them and the army withdrew moctezuma ii instituted more imperial reforms 47 the death of nezahualcoyotl caused the mexica emperors to become the de facto rulers of the alliance moctezuma ii used his reign to attempt to consolidate power more closely with the mexica emperor 50 he removed many of ahuitzotl s advisors and had several of them executed 47 he also abolished the quauhpilli class destroying the chance for commoners to advance to the nobility his reform efforts were cut short by the spanish conquest in 1519 spanish conquest main article spanish conquest of the aztec empire the valley of mexico at the time of the spanish conquest the spanish expedition leader hernán cortés landed in yucatán in 1519 with approximately 630 men most armed with only a sword and shield cortés had actually been removed as the expedition s commander by the governor of cuba diego velásquez but had stolen the boats and left without permission 51 at the island of cozumel cortés encountered a shipwrecked spaniard named gerónimo de aguilar who joined the expedition and translated between spanish and mayan the expedition then sailed west to campeche where after a brief battle with the local army cortés was able to negotiate peace through his interpreter aguilar the king of campeche gave cortés a second translator a bilingual nahua maya slave woman named la malinche she was known also as malinalli maliˈnalːi malintzin maˈlintsin or doña marina ˈdoɲa maˈɾina aguilar translated from spanish to mayan and la malinche translated from mayan to nahuatl malinche became cortés translator for both language and culture once she learned spanish and she was a key figure in interactions with nahua rulers 52 cortés then sailed from campeche to cempoala a tributary province of the aztec triple alliance nearby he founded the town of veracruz where he met with ambassadors from the reigning mexica emperor moctezuma ii when the ambassadors returned to tenochtitlan cortés went to cempoala to meet with the local totonac leaders the totonac ruler told cortés of his various grievances against the mexica and cortés convinced the totonacs to imprison an imperial tribute collector 53 cortés subsequently released the tribute collector after persuading him that the move was entirely the totonac s idea and that he had no knowledge of it the totonacs provided cortés with 20 companies of soldiers for his march to tlaxcala having effectively declared war on the aztecs 54 at this time several of cortés soldiers attempted to mutiny when cortés discovered the plot he had his ships scuttled and sank them in the harbor to remove any possibility of escaping to cuba 55 the maximal extent of the aztec empire by 1519 according to maría del carmen solanes carraro and enrique vela ramírez codex azcatitlan depicting the spanish army with cortés and malinche in front the spanish led totonac army crossed into tlaxcala to seek the latter s alliance against the aztecs however the tlaxcalan general xicotencatl the younger believed them to be hostile and attacked after fighting several close battles cortés eventually convinced the leaders of tlaxcala to order their general to stand down cortés then secured an alliance with the people of tlaxcala and traveled from there to the basin of mexico with a smaller company of 5 000 6 000 tlaxcalans and 400 totonacs in addition to the spanish soldiers 55 during his stay in the city of cholula cortés claims he received word of a planned ambush against the spanish 55 in a pre emptive response cortés directed his troops to attack and kill a large amount of unarmed cholulans gathered in the main square of the city following the massacre at cholula cortés and the other spaniards entered tenochtitlan where they were greeted as guests and given quarters in the palace of former emperor axayacatl 56 after staying in the city for six weeks two spaniards from the group left behind in veracruz were killed in an altercation with an aztec lord named quetzalpopoca cortés claims that he used this incident as an excuse to take motecuzoma prisoner under threat of force 55 motecuzoma continued to run the kingdom as a prisoner of cortés for several months a second larger spanish expedition then arrived in 1520 under the command of pánfilo de narváez sent by diego velásquez with the goal of arresting cortés for treason before confronting narváez cortés secretly persuaded narváez s lieutenants to betray him and join cortés 55 cortés was away from tenochtitlan dealing with narváez while his second in command pedro de alvarado massacred a group of aztec nobility in response to a ritual of human sacrifice honoring huitzilopochtli 55 the aztecs retaliated by attacking the palace where the spanish were quartered cortés returned to tenochtitlan and fought his way to the palace he then took motecuzoma up to the roof of the palace to ask his subjects to stand down however by this point the ruling council of tenochtitlan had voted to depose motecuzoma and had elected his brother cuitlahuac as the new emperor 56 one of the aztec soldiers struck motecuzoma in the head with a sling stone and he died several days later though the exact circumstances of his death are unclear 56 cristóbal de olid led spanish soldiers with tlaxcalan allies in the conquests of jalisco and colima of west mexico the spaniards and their allies attempted to retreat without detection in what is known as the sad night or la noche triste realizing that they were vulnerable to the hostile mexica in tenochtitlan following moctezuma s death spaniards and their indigenous allies were discovered clandestinely retreating and were then forced to fight their way out of the city with heavy loss of life some spaniards lost their lives by drowning loaded down with gold 57 they retreated to tlacopan now tacuba and made their way to tlaxcala where they recovered and prepared for the second successful assault on tenochtitlan after this incident a smallpox outbreak hit tenochtitlan the outbreak alone killed more than 50 of the region s population including the emperor cuitláhuac as the indigenous of the new world had no previous exposure to smallpox 58 the new emperor cuauhtémoc dealt with the smallpox outbreak while cortés raised an army of tlaxcalans texcocans totonacs and others discontent with aztec rule cortés marched back to the basin of mexico with a combined army of up to 100 000 warriors 55 the overwhelming majority of warriors were indigenous rather than spanish cortés captured various indigenous city states or altepetl around the lake shore and surrounding mountains through numerous subsequent battles and skirmishes including the other capitals of the triple alliance tlacopan and texcoco texcoco in fact had already become firm allies of the spaniards and the city state and subsequently petitioned the spanish crown for recognition of their services in the conquest similar to tlaxcala 59 cortés used boats constructed in texcoco from parts salvaged from the scuttled ships to blockade and lay siege to tenochtitlan for a period of several months 55 eventually the spanish led army assaulted the city both by boat and using the elevated causeways connecting it to the mainland the attackers took heavy casualties although the aztecs were ultimately defeated the city of tenochtitlan was thoroughly destroyed in the process cuauhtémoc was captured as he attempted to flee the city cortés kept him prisoner and tortured him for a period of several years before finally executing him in 1525 60 government a tlacochcalcatl pictured in the codex mendoza mexico tenochtitlan kept the city states under threat de facto just by military brute force the aztec empire was an example of an empire that ruled by indirect means it was ethnically very diverse like most european empires but was more a system of tributes than a single unitary form of government unlike them in the theoretical framework of imperial systems posited by american historian alexander j motyl the aztec empire was an informal type of empire in that the alliance did not claim supreme authority over its tributary provinces but merely expected them to pay tributes 61 the empire was also territorially discontinuous i e land did not connect all of its dominated territories for example the southern peripheral zones of xoconochco were not in immediate contact with the central part of the empire the hegemonic nature of the aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once they conquered their city state and the aztecs did not interfere in local affairs as long as the tribute payments were made 62 the form of government is often referred to as an empire yet most areas within the empire were in fact organized as city states individually known as altepetl in nahuatl the language of the aztecs these were small polities ruled by a king or tlatoani literally speaker plurally tlatoque from an aristocratic dynasty the early aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepeme after the nahuas formed the empire in 1428 and the empire began its program of expansion through conquest the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level the efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire s hegemonic form of control 63 the term aztec empire is actually modern and not one used by the aztecs themselves the aztec realm was at its core composed of three nahuatl speaking city states in the densely populated valley of mexico asymmetries of power elevated one of those city states tenochtitlan above the other two over time the triple alliance came to establish hegemony over much of central mesoamerica including areas of great linguistic and cultural diversity the nahuas performed administration of the empire through largely traditional indirect means something of a nascent bureaucracy however may have been beginning to form over time insofar as the state organization became increasingly centralized central administration the huēyi teōcalli ruins in mexico tenochtitlan remnants present day historic center of mexico city ehecatl temple in the foundations of the mexico city metropolitan cathedral historic center of mexico city before the reign of nezahualcoyotl 1429 1472 the aztec empire operated as a confederation along traditional mesoamerican lines independent altepetl were led by tlatoani lit speakers who supervised village headmen who in turn supervised groups of households a typical mesoamerican confederation placed a huey tlatoani lit great speaker at the head of several tlatoani following nezahualcoyotl the aztec empire followed a somewhat divergent path with some tlatoani of recently conquered or otherwise subordinated altepetl becoming replaced with calpixque stewards charged with collecting tribute on behalf of the huetlatoani rather than simply replacing an old tlatoque with new ones from the same set of local nobility 64 yet the huey tlatoani was not the sole executive it was the responsibility of the huey tlatoani to deal with the external issues of empire the management of tribute war diplomacy and expansion were all under the purview of the huey tlatoani it was the role of the cihuacoatl to govern a given city itself the cihuacoatl was always a close relative of the huey tlatoani tlacaelel for example was the brother of moctezuma i both the title cihuacoatl which means female snake it is the name of a nahua deity and the role of the position somewhat analogous to a european viceroy or prime minister reflect the dualistic nature of nahua cosmology neither the position of cihuacoatl nor the position of huetlatoani were priestly yet both did have important ritual tasks those of the former were associated with the female wet season those of the latter with the male dry season while the position of cihuacoatl is best attested in tenochtitlan it is known that the position also existed the nearby altepetl of azcapotzalco culhuacan and tenochtitlan s ally texcoco despite the apparent lesser status of the position a cihuacoatl could prove both influential and powerful as in the case of tlacaelel 65 66 early in the history of the empire tenochtitlan developed a four member military and advisory council which assisted the huey tlatoani in his decision making the tlacochcalcatl the tlaccatecatl the ezhuahuacatl 67 and the tlillancalqui this design not only provided advice for the ruler it also...