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such as burtonisation double dropping and yorkshire square as well as post fermentation treatment such as filtering and barrel ageing history further information history of beer and women in brewing the alulu beer receipt records a purchase of best beer from a brewer c 2050 bc from the sumerian city of umma in mesopotamia ancient iraq 11 see also fermentation in food processing brewing and winemaking brewing has taken place since at least the 11th millennium bc 3 and archaeological evidence suggests that prehistoric peoples and later civilisations including those in china 12 ancient egypt 13 and mesopotamia brewed beer 14 descriptions of beer production can be found in cuneiform the oldest known writing from ancient mesopotamia 14 4 15 in mesopotamia the brewer s craft derived social sanction and divine protection from female deities goddesses specifically ninkasi who covered the production of beer 16 siris who was used in a metonymic way to refer to beer 17 and siduri who appears in the epic of gilgamesh as a divine alewife or tavern keeper 18 covered the enjoyment of beer 6 in pre industrial times and in developing countries women are frequently the main brewers 19 20 as almost any cereal containing certain sugars can undergo spontaneous fermentation due to wild yeasts in the air and on the grains it is possible that beer like beverages were independently developed throughout the world in prehistoric times the earliest archaeological evidence for cereal based beer brewing has been found at raqefet cave in present day israel where analysis of stone mortars indicates that the natufians a semi sedentary foraging people brewed wheat or barley based beer around 13 000 years ago probably for ritual feasts the brewing of beer at raqefet cave predates the appearance of domesticated cereals in the near east by several millennia 3 in mesopotamia early pictorial evidence for beer drinking includes a 6 000 year old sumerian seal from tepe gawra dating to around 4000 bc which depicts two figures drinking beer through long reed straws from a communal bowl 21 chemical analysis of pottery from godin tepe in the central zagros mountains of present day iran provides evidence of barley beer from about 5 500 years ago with fragments of a jug found to contain deposits of beerstone a by product associated with brewing 22 23 a 3900 year old sumerian poem honouring ninkasi the patron goddess of brewing contains the oldest surviving beer recipe describing the production of beer from barley via bread 14 the production of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanity s ability to develop technology and build civilisation 24 25 26 27 beer may have been known in neolithic europe as far back as 5 000 years ago 28 brewing remained largely a household activity in early medieval europe although beer was also produced commercially and in monasteries 29 ale produced before the industrial revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale while during the early middle ages beer was also being produced and sold by european monasteries 30 during the industrial revolution the production of beer moved from artisanal to industrial manufacture and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century 31 the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results today the brewing industry is a global business consisting of several dominant multinational companies 32 along with many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries 33 34 ingredients malted barley before kilning or roasting the basic ingredients of beer are water a starch source such as malted barley able to be fermented converted into alcohol a brewer s yeast to produce the fermentation and a flavouring such as hops 7 to offset the sweetness of the malt 35 a mixture of starch sources may be used with a secondary saccharide such as maize corn rice or sugar these often being termed adjuncts especially when used as a lower cost substitute for malted barley 9 less widely used starch sources include millet sorghum and cassava root in africa potato in brazil and agave in mexico among others 8 the most common starch source is ground cereal or grist the proportion of the starch or cereal ingredients in a beer recipe may be called grist grain bill or simply mash ingredients 10 water beer is composed mostly of water regions have water with different mineral components as a result different regions were originally better suited to making certain types of beer thus giving them a regional character 36 37 for example dublin has hard water well suited to making stout such as guinness while pilsen has soft water well suited to making pale lager such as pilsner urquell 36 the waters of burton in england contain gypsum which benefits making pale ale to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as burtonisation 38 starch source main articles malt and mash ingredients the starch source in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer the most common starch source used in beer is malted grain grain is malted by soaking it in water allowing it to begin germination and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln malting grain produces enzymes that will allow conversion from starches in the grain into fermentable sugars during the mash process 39 different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain darker malts will produce darker beers 40 nearly all beer includes barley malt as the majority of the starch barley malt in addition to being a starch source is used because its fibrous husk aids filtration during brewing 41 and because it is a rich source of amylase enzymes that facilitate the conversion of starch into sugars 42 other malted and unmalted grains including wheat rice oats and rye and less frequently maize corn and sorghum may be used 43 sorghum may be used as a starch source in gluten free beer 44 hops main article hops hop cone grown in a hop field hallertau germany hops are the female flower clusters or seed cones of the hop vine humulus lupulus 45 which are used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today 46 hops had been used for medicinal and food flavouring purposes since roman times by the 7th century in carolingian monasteries in what is now germany beer was being made with hops 47 though it isn t until the thirteenth century that widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is recorded 48 before the thirteenth century beer was flavoured with plants such as yarrow wild rosemary and bog myrtle and other ingredients such as juniper berries aniseed and ginger which would be combined into a mixture known as gruit and used as hops are now used between the thirteenth and the sixteenth century during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring beer flavoured with gruit was known as ale while beer flavoured with hops was known as beer 49 50 some beers today such as fraoch by the scottish williams bros brewing company and cervoise lancelot by the french brasserie lancelot use plants other than hops for flavouring 51 52 hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer they contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt they provide floral citrus and herbal aromas and flavours they have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer s yeast over less desirable microorganisms and they aid in head retention the length of time that the foam on top of the beer the beer head will last 53 the preservative in hops comes from the lupulin glands which contain soft resins with alpha and beta acids 54 55 though much studied the preservative nature of the soft resins is not yet fully understood though it has been observed that unless stored at a cool temperature the preservative nature will decrease 56 57 brewing is the sole major commercial use of hops 58 yeast main articles brewer s yeast saccharomyces cerevisiae and saccharomyces pastorianus yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer yeast metabolises the sugars extracted from grains which produces alcohol and carbon dioxide and thereby turns wort into beer in addition to fermenting the beer yeast influences the character and flavour 59 the dominant types of yeast used to make beer are saccharomyces cerevisiae known as ale yeast and saccharomyces pastorianus known as lager yeast brettanomyces ferments lambics 60 and torulaspora delbrueckii ferments bavarian weissbier 61 before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts and a few styles such as lambics still use this method today emil christian hansen a danish biochemist employed by the carlsberg laboratory developed pure yeast cultures which were introduced into the carlsberg brewery in 1883 62 and pure yeast strains are now the main fermenting source used worldwide 63 clarifying agent main article finings some brewers add one or more clarifying agents to beer which typically precipitate collect as a solid out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product this process makes the beer appear bright and clean rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as wheat beers 64 examples of clarifying agents include isinglass obtained from swim bladders of fish irish moss a seaweed kappa carrageenan from the seaweed kappaphycus polyclar a commercial brand of clarifier and gelatin 65 if a beer is marked suitable for vegans it was generally clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents 66 although the fast cask method invented by marston s in 2009 may provide another method 67 brewing process a clickable diagram depicting the process of brewing beer hot water tank mash tun malt hops copper hopback add yeast to fermenter heat exchanger bottling cask or keg there are several steps in the brewing process which may include malting mashing lautering boiling fermenting conditioning filtering and packaging 68 the brewing equipment needed to make beer has grown more sophisticated over time and now covers most aspects of the brewing process 69 70 malting is the process where barley grain is made ready for brewing 71 malting is broken down into three steps in order to help to release the starches in the barley 72 first during steeping the grain is added to a vat with water and allowed to soak for approximately 40 hours 73 during germination the grain is spread out on the floor of the germination room for around 5 days 73 the final part of malting is kilning when the malt goes through a very high temperature drying in a kiln with gradual temperature increase over several hours 74 when kilning is complete the grains are now termed malt and they will be milled or crushed to break apart the kernels and expose the endosperm which contains the majority of the carbohydrates and sugars this makes it easier to extract the sugars during mashing 75 mashing converts the starches released during the malting stage into sugars that can be fermented the milled grain is mixed with hot water in a large vessel known as a mash tun in this vessel the grain and water are mixed together to create a cereal mash during the mash naturally occurring enzymes present in the malt convert the starches long chain carbohydrates in the grain into smaller molecules or simple sugars mono di and tri saccharides this conversion is called saccharification which occurs between the temperatures 60 70 c 140 158 f 76 the result of the mashing process is a sugar rich liquid or wort which is then strained through the bottom of the mash tun in a process known as lautering prior to lautering the mash temperature may be raised to about 75 78 c 167 172 f known as a mashout to free up more starch and reduce mash viscosity additional water may be sprinkled on the grains to extract additional sugars a process known as sparging 77 the wort is moved into a large tank known as a copper or kettle where it is boiled with hops and sometimes other ingredients such as herbs or sugars this stage is where many chemical reactions take place and where important decisions about the flavour colour and aroma of the beer are made 78 the boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes precipitate proteins isomerise hop resins and concentrate and sterilise the wort hops add flavour aroma and bitterness to the beer at the end of the boil the hopped wort settles to clarify in a vessel called a whirlpool where the more solid particles in the wort are separated out 79 after the whirlpool the wort is drawn away from the compacted hop trub and rapidly cooled via a heat exchanger to a temperature where yeast can be added a variety of heat exchanger designs are used in breweries with the most common a plate style water or glycol run in channels in the opposite direction of the wort causing a rapid drop in temperature it is very important to quickly cool the wort to a level where yeast can be added safely as yeast is unable to grow in very high temperatures and will start to die in temperatures above 60 c 140 f 80 after the wort goes through the heat exchanger the cooled wort goes into a fermentation tank a type of yeast is selected and added or pitched to the fermentation tank 78 when the yeast is added to the wort the fermenting process begins where the sugars turn into alcohol carbon dioxide and other components when the fermentation is complete the brewer may rack the beer into a new tank called a conditioning tank 77 conditioning of the beer is the process in which the beer ages the flavour becomes smoother and flavours that are unwanted dissipate 79 after conditioning for a week to several months the beer may be filtered and force carbonated for bottling 81 or fined in the cask 82 mashing main article mashing a mash tun at the bass museum in burton upon trent mashing is the process of combining a mix of milled grain typically malted barley with supplementary grains such as corn sorghum rye or wheat known as the grist or grain bill and water known as liquor and heating this mixture in a vessel called a mash tun mashing is a form of steeping 83 and defines the act of brewing such as with making tea sake and soy sauce 84 technically wine and cider are not brewed but rather vinified as there is no steeping process involving solids 85 86 mead is also fermented directly without a steeping stage and is conventionally described as being made rather than brewed 87 mashing allows the enzymes in the malt to break down the starch in the grain into sugars typically maltose producing a malty sugar rich liquid called wort 88 there are two main methods infusion mashing in which the grains are heated in one vessel and decoction mashing...