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yas hishino meisho 4 south korea with notable shipyards daewoo and hyundai heavy industries 4 ranked second among builders with 643 ships the people s republic of china with large shipyards such as dalian chengxi and shanghai waigaoqiao ranked third with 509 ships 54 taiwan with shipyards such as china shipbuilding corporation 4 ranked fourth accounting for 129 ships 54 shipyards in these top four countries built over 82 of the bulk carriers afloat 54 freight charges edit average time charter rates for bulk carriers several factors affect the cost to move a bulk cargo by ship the bulk freight market is very volatile with the type of cargo size of the vessel and the route traveled all affecting the final price moving a capesize load of coal from south america to europe cost anywhere from 15 to 25 per ton in 2005 55 hauling a panamax sized load of aggregate materials from the gulf of mexico to japan that year could cost as little as 40 per ton to as much as 70 per ton 55 some shippers choose instead to charter a ship paying a daily rate instead of a set price per ton 55 in 2005 the average daily rate for a handymax ship varied between 18 000 30 000 55 a panamax ship could be chartered for 20 000 50 000 per day and a capesize for 40 000 70 000 per day 55 ship breaking edit main article ship breaking generally ships are removed from the fleet by going through a process known as ship breaking or scrapping 56 ship owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship s empty weight called light ton displacement or ldt and prices in the scrap metal market 57 in 1998 almost 700 ships were scrapped in places like alang india and chittagong bangladesh 56 this is often done by beaching the ship on open sand then cutting it apart by hand with gas torches a dangerous operation that results in injuries and fatalities as well as exposure to toxic materials such as asbestos lead and various chemicals 58 59 60 half a million deadweight tons worth of bulk carriers were scrapped in 2004 accounting for 4 7 of the year s scrapping 55 that year bulk carriers fetched particularly high scrap prices between 340 and 350 per ldt 55 operation edit crew edit typical bulk carrier crew captain master deck department engine department steward s department 1 chief mate 1 second mate 1 third mate 1 boatswain 1 deck cadet 2 6 able seamen 0 2 ordinary seamen 1 chief engineer 1 second engineer 1 third engineer 1 2 fourth engineers 0 1 eto 0 2 motormen 1 3 oilers 0 3 greasers 1 3 wipers 1 chief steward 1 chief cook 1 steward s assistant the crew on a bulk carrier typically consists of 20 to 30 people though smaller ships can be handled by 8 the crew includes the captain or master the deck department the engine department and the steward s department the practice of taking passengers aboard cargo ships once almost universal is very rare today and almost non existent on bulk carriers 61 during the 1990s bulk carriers were involved in an alarming number of shipwrecks this led ship owners to commission a study seeking to explain the effect of various factors on the crew s effectiveness and competence 62 the study showed that crew performance aboard bulk carriers was the lowest of all groups studied 62 among bulk carrier crews the best performance was found aboard younger and larger ships 62 crews on better maintained ships performed better as did crews on ships where fewer languages were spoken 62 fewer deck officers are employed on bulk carriers than on similarly sized ships of other types 62 a mini bulk carrier carries two to three deck officers while larger handysize and capesize bulk carriers carry four 62 liquid natural gas tankers of the same size have an additional deck officer and unlicensed mariner 62 voyages edit a bulk carrier s voyages are determined by market forces routes and cargoes often vary a ship may engage in the grain trade during the harvest season and later move on to carry other cargoes or work on a different route aboard a coastal carrier in the tramp trade the crew will often not know the next port of call until the cargo is fully loaded because bulk cargo is so difficult to discharge bulk carriers spend more time in port than other ships a study of mini bulk carriers found that it takes on average twice as much time to unload a ship as it does to load it 62 a mini bulk carrier spends 55 hours at a time in port compared to 35 hours for a lumber carrier of similar size 62 this time in port increases to 74 hours for handymax and 120 hours for panamax vessels 62 compared with the 12 hour turnarounds common for container ships 15 hour turnarounds for car carriers and 26 hour turnarounds for large tankers bulk carrier crews have more opportunities to spend time ashore 62 loading and unloading edit bulk carrier unloading road salt in portsmouth new hampshire loading and unloading a bulk carrier is time consuming and dangerous the process is planned by the ship s chief mate under the direct and continued supervision of ship s captain international regulations require that the captain and terminal master agree on a detailed plan before operations begin 63 deck officers and stevedores oversee the operations occasionally loading errors are made that cause a ship to capsize or break in half at the pier 64 the loading method used depends on both the cargo and the equipment available on the ship and on the dock in the least advanced ports cargo can be loaded with shovels or bags poured from the hatch cover this system is being replaced with faster less labor intensive methods 65 double articulation cranes which can load at a rate of 1 000 tons per hour represent a widely used method 65 and the use of shore based gantry cranes reaching 2 000 tons per hour is growing 65 a crane s discharge rate is limited by the bucket s capacity from 6 to 40 tons and by the speed at which the crane can take a load deposit it at the terminal and return to take the next for modern gantry cranes the total time of the grab deposit return cycle is about 50 seconds 4 conveyor belts offer a very efficient method of loading with standard loading rates varying between 100 and 700 tons per hour although the most advanced ports can offer rates of 16 000 tons per hour 65 66 start up and shutdown procedures with conveyor belts though are complicated and require time to carry out 66 self discharging ships use conveyor belts with load rates of around 1 000 tons per hour 65 once the cargo is discharged the crew begins to clean the holds this is particularly important if the next cargo is of a different type 67 the immense size of cargo holds and the tendency of cargoes to be physically irritating add to the difficulty of cleaning the holds when the holds are clean the process of loading begins it is crucial to keep the cargo level during loading in order to maintain stability 8 as the hold is filled machines such as excavators and bulldozers are often used to keep the cargo in check leveling is particularly important when the hold is only partly full since cargo is more likely to shift 68 extra precautions are taken such as adding longitudinal divisions and securing wood atop the cargo 7 if a hold is full a technique called tomming is used 8 which involves digging out a 6 feet 2 m hole below the hatch cover and filling it with bagged cargo or weights 8 a typical bulk carrier offload 1 a bulldozer is loaded into the hold 2 the bulldozer pushes cargo to the center of the hold 3 the gantry crane picks up the cargo 4 the gantry crane removes the cargo from the ship 5 the gantry crane moves the cargo to a bin on the pier architecture edit a bulk carrier s design is largely defined by the cargo it will carry the cargo s density also known as its stowage factor is the key factor densities for common bulk cargoes vary from 0 6 tons per cubic meter for light grains to 3 tons per cubic meter for iron ore 4 the overall cargo weight is the limiting factor in the design of an ore carrier since the cargo is so dense coal carriers on the other hand are limited by overall volume since most bulk carriers can be completely filled with coal before reaching their maximum draft 4 for a given tonnage the second factor which governs the ship s dimensions is the size of the ports and waterways it will travel to for example a vessel that will pass the panama canal will be limited in its beam and draft for most designs the ratio of length to width ranges between 5 and 7 with an average of 6 2 4 the ratio of length to height will be between 11 and 12 4 machinery edit bulk carrier architectural plans line plan of a 1990 capesize ore carrier typical midship section of a bulk carrier with a single hull and double bottom the engine room on a bulk carrier is usually near the stern under the superstructure larger bulk carriers from handymax up usually have a single two stroke low speed crosshead diesel engine directly coupled to a fixed pitch propeller electricity is produced by auxiliary generators and or an alternator coupled to the propeller shaft on the smaller bulk carriers one or two four stroke diesels are used to turn either a fixed or controllable pitch propeller via a reduction gearbox which may also incorporate an output for an alternator 4 the average design ship speed for bulk carriers of handysize and above is 13 5 15 knots 25 0 27 8 km h 15 5 17 3 mph 23 the propeller speed is relatively low at about 90 revolutions per minute although it depends on the size of the propeller 4 as a result of the 1973 oil crisis the 1979 energy crisis and the resulting rise in oil prices experimental designs using coal to fuel ships were tested in the late 1970s and early 1980s the australian national lines anl constructed two 74 700 ton coal burner ships called river boyne and river embely 69 along with two constructed by tnt called tnt capricornia and tnt carpentaria and renamed fitzroy river and endeavor river these ships were financially effective for the duration of their lives and their steam engines were able to generate a shaft power of 19 000 horsepower 14 000 kw 69 this strategy gave an interesting advantage to carriers of bauxite and similar fuel cargoes but suffered from poor engine yield compared to higher maintenance cost and efficient modern diesels maintenance problems due to the supply of ungraded coal and high initial costs 69 hatches edit the sliding hatchcovers of zaira a hatch or hatchway is the opening at the top of a cargo hold the mechanical devices which allow hatches to be opened and closed are called hatch cover in general hatch covers are between 45 and 60 of the ship s breadth or beam and 57 to 67 of the length of the holds 4 to efficiently load and unload cargo hatches must be large but large hatches present structural problems hull stress is concentrated around the edges of the hatches and these areas must be reinforced 66 often hatch areas are reinforced by locally increasing the scantlings or by adding structural members called stiffeners both of these options have the undesired effect of adding weight to the ship as recently as the 1950s hatches had wooden covers that would be broken apart and rebuilt by hand rather than opened and closed 70 newer vessels have hydraulic operated metal hatch covers that can often be operated by one person 67 hatch covers can slide forwards backwards or to the side lift up or fold up it is essential that the hatch covers be watertight unsealed hatches lead to accidental cargo hold flooding which has caused many bulk carriers to sink 71 regulations regarding hatch covers have evolved since the investigation following the loss of the mv derbyshire 72 the load line conference of 1966 imposed a requirement that hatch covers be able to withstand load of 1 74 tons m 2 due to sea water and a minimum scantling of 6 mm for the tops of the hatch covers the international association of classification societies then increased this strength standard by creating its unified requirement s21 73 in 1998 this standard requires that the pressure due to sea water be calculated as a function of freeboard and speed especially for hatch covers located on the forward portion of the ship 73 hull edit unloaded trillium class dry bulk carrier at the port of redwood city bulk carriers are designed to be easy to build and to store cargo efficiently to facilitate construction bulk carriers are built with a single hull curvature 4 also while a bulbous bow allows a ship to move more efficiently through the water designers lean towards simple vertical bows on larger ships 4 full hulls with large block coefficients are almost universal and as a result bulk carriers are inherently slow 4 this is offset by their efficiency comparing a ship s carrying capacity in terms of deadweight tonnage to its weight when empty is one way to measure its efficiency 4 a small handymax ship can carry five times its weight 4 in larger designs this efficiency is even more pronounced capesize vessels can carry more than eight times their weight 4 bulk carriers have a cross section typical of most merchant ships the upper and lower corners of the hold are used as ballast tanks as is the double bottom area the corner tanks are reinforced and serve another purpose besides controlling the ship s trim designers choose the angle of the corner tanks to be less than that of the angle of repose of the anticipated cargoes 14 this greatly reduces side to side movement or shifting of cargo which can endanger the ship 14 the double bottoms are also subject to design constraints the primary concern is that they be high enough to allow the passage of pipes and cables these areas must also be roomy enough to allow people safe access to perform surveys and maintenance on the other hand concerns of excess weight and wasted volume keep the double bottoms very tight spaces bulk carrier hulls are made of steel usually mild steel 74 some manufacturers have preferred high tensile steel recently in order to reduce the tare weight 75 however the use of high tensile steel for longitudinal and transverse reinforcements can reduce the hull s rigidity and resistance to corrosion 14 forged steel is used for some ship parts such as the propeller shaft support 4 transverse partitions are made of corrugated iron reinforced at the bottom and at connections 4 the construction of bulk carrier hulls using a concrete steel sandwich has been investigated 76 double hulls have become popular in the past ten years 4 designing a vessel with double sides adds primarily to its breadth since bulk carriers are already required to have double bottoms 77 one of the advantages of the double hull is to make room to place all the structural elements in the sides removing them from the holds 78 this increases the volume of the holds and simplifies their structure which helps in loading unloading and cleaning 79 double sides also improve a ship s capacity for ballasting which is useful when carrying light goods the ship may have to...