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astern section to bear the costs of the war against texas the national government imposed several taxes including raising importation duties and the movement of local goods in response to this on 2 may 1839 a federalist movement led by santiago imán created a rival government in tizimín which soon took over valladolid espita izamal and finally mérida on the yucatán peninsula 14 imán appealed to the indigenous maya population providing them with firearms he promised to give them land free of tribute and exploitation with their support he prevailed in battle in february 1840 imán proclaimed yucatán s return to a federal regime then in 1841 declared it to be an independent republic antonio lópez de santa anna head of the mexican government did not accept this independence and invaded yucatán in 1842 establishing a blockade land invasion followed but the mexican forces were frustrated in their attempts to take either campeche or mérida and withdrew to tampico as yucatán was struggling against mexican authority its population became divided into factions one faction based in mérida was led by miguel barbachano who leaned toward reintegration with mexico the other faction was led by santiago méndez based in campeche he feared reintegration would expose the region to attack by the united states as tensions loomed on the northern border that would soon break out in the mexican american war by 1847 the yucatán republic had effectively two capitals in the two cities at the same time in their struggle against the central government both leaders had integrated numerous maya into their armies as soldiers the maya having taken up arms in the course of the war decided not to set them down again war breaks out edit see also henequen industry in yucatán the war was rooted in the defense of santa cruz indian communal lands against the expansion of private ownership which had accompanied the boom in the production of henequen or agave an industrial fiber used in rope production 15 after discovering the value of the plant from 1833 the wealthier hispanic yucatecos developed plantations to cultivate it on a large scale not long after the henequen boom a boom in sugar production led to more wealth for the upper class they expanded their sugar and henequen plantations by encroaching on maya communal lands and typically abused their maya workers by treating them poorly and underpaying them 14 16 see also wikipedia article on mérida in their correspondence with british honduras belize rebel maya leaders cited oppressive taxation as the immediate cause of the war jacinto pat for example wrote in 1848 that what we want is liberty and not oppression because before we were subjugated with the many contributions and taxes that they imposed on us 17 pat s companion cecilio chi added in 1849 that promises made by the rebel santiago imán that he was liberating the indians from the payment of contributions was a reason to resist the central government but imán continued to levy such taxes 18 in june 1847 méndez learned that a large force of armed maya with supplies had gathered near vallodolid at the culumpich a property owned by jacinto pat the maya batab leader fearing revolt méndez arrested manuel antonio ay the principal maya leader of chichimilá accused him of planning a revolt and executed him at the town square of valladolid searching for other insurgents méndez burned the town of tepich and repressed its residents in the following months méndez forces sacked several maya towns and engaged in arbitrary executions cecilio chi the maya leader of tepich with jacinto pat attacked tepich on 30 july 1847 in reaction to the indiscriminate massacre of maya that had taken place chi ordered that all the non maya population be killed by the spring of 1848 the maya forces had taken over most of the yucatán except the walled cities of campeche and mérida and the southwest coast in his 1849 letter cecilio chi noted that santiago méndez had come to put every indian big and little to death but that the maya had responded in kind he wrote it has pleased god and good fortune that a much greater portion of them whites mestizos and allied indians than of the indians have died 19 yucatecan troops held the road from mérida to the port of sisal the yucatecan governor miguel barbachano had prepared a decree to evacuate mérida but was possibly delayed in publishing it by the lack of suitable paper in the besieged capital the decree became unnecessary when the republican troops suddenly broke the siege and took the offensive with major advances historians disagree on the reason for this defeat according to some who the majority of the maya troops not realizing the unique strategic advantage of their siege situation had left the lines to plant their crops planning to return after planting it is said by whom that the appearance of flying ants swarming after heavy rains was the traditional signal for the maya to start planting they abandoned the battle others argue that the maya had not laid up enough supplies for the campaign and were unable to feed their forces any longer and their break up was to search for food citation needed governor miguel barbachano of yucatán sought allies sending representatives to cuba to seek spanish help to jamaica to gain aid from the united kingdom and to the united states but none of these foreign powers would intervene in the united states the situation in the yucatán was debated in congress but there was no will to fight 20 subsequently barbachano turned to mexico city and accepted a return to mexican authority yucatán was officially reunited with mexico on 17 august 1848 yucateco forces rallied aided by guns money and troops from mexico city and pushed back the maya from more than half of the state by 1850 the maya occupied two distinct regions in the southeast in the decade that followed a stalemate developed with the yucatecan government in control of the northwest and the maya in control of the southeast with a sparsely populated jungle frontier in between in 1850 the maya of the southeast were inspired to continue the struggle by the apparition of the talking cross this apparition believed to be a way in which god communicated with the maya dictated that the war continue chan santa cruz small holy cross became the religious and political center of the maya resistance and the rebellion became infused with religious meaning the largest of the independent maya states was named chan santa cruz as was its capital city now named felipe carrillo puerto in quintana roo the followers of the cross were known as the cruzo the government of yucatán first declared war over in 1855 but regular skirmishes and occasional deadly major assaults continued by each side the united kingdom recognized the chan santa cruz maya as a de facto independent nation in part because of the major trade between chan santa cruz and british honduras present day belize during the war the yucatán government sold maya prisoners into slavery and the peninsula became a platform for the cuban slave trade 21 maya independence edit the chan santa cruz state stretching from north of tulum to the belize border and a considerable distance inland was the largest of the independent maya communities of the era but not the only one josé maría echeverría a sergeant in the army taken captive by the maya resided in the town in 1851 1853 he reported later that it had about 200 maya and 200 whites all well armed and apparently fighting together the whites were under their commander a man of reddish complexion they also had several outlying communities under their control one contained about 100 people and the others unknown numbers 22 in 1858 an english visitor thought the maya had 1 500 fighting men in all he noted that they took the santa cruz with them and that its priests were prominent in the society 23 the ixcanha maya community had a population of some 1 000 people who refused the cruzob s break with traditional catholicism in the years of stalemate ixcanha agreed to nominal recognition of the government of mexico in exchange for some guns to defend themselves from cruzob raids and the promise that the mexican government would otherwise leave them alone mexico city gave ixcanha autonomy to govern itself through 1894 following a treaty with the united kingdom that recognized mexico s rule over the yucatán as it was more worried about the chan santa cruz another important group were the icaiche maya who dominated the jungles of the lower center of the peninsula in the 1860s under their leader marcus canul they battled against the mexicans the cruzob and the british from the nearby settlement of british honduras marcus canul and the icaiche maya routed a detachment of british troops on 21 december 1866 at the battle of san pedro yalbac in 1867 the british mounted a counter offensive equipped with newly arrived congreve rockets 24 this counter offensive burned down the villages of san pedro santa teresa san josé naranjal cerro santa cruz and chunbalche 25 the maya briefly took corozal town in 1870 and their last major attack was on 1 september 1872 when canul was mortally wounded at the battle of orange walk 26 the new icaiche leaders promised friendship with the british they soon agreed with the mexican central government similar to that of the ixcanha years after the belize estate and produce company bec began a series of campaigns to forcibly remove maya from the yalbac area negotiations in 1883 led to a treaty signed on 11 january 1884 in belize city by a chan santa cruz general and the vice governor of yucatán it recognized mexican sovereignty over chan santa cruz in exchange for mexican recognition of chan santa cruz leader crescencio poot as governor of the state of chan santa cruz the following year a coup d état took place in chan santa cruz and the government declared the treaty cancelled 20th century and the end of the war edit an early 20th century henequen field in yucatán in 1893 the united kingdom maintained good relations with mexico s porfirio díaz administration and british investment in mexico had become of much greater economic importance than the trade between the cruzob and belize 27 the uk signed a treaty with mexico recognizing mexican sovereignty over the region formalizing the border between mexico and british honduras and closing their colony s border to trade with the chan santa cruz rebels as belize merchants were chan santa cruz s main source of gunpowder and guns this was a serious blow for the independent maya in previous decades the mexican army had twice managed to fight its way to the town of chan santa cruz but was driven back both times in 1901 mexican general ignacio bravo led his troops to the town to stay occupying it with a large force over the next few years he subdued surrounding villages bravo telegraphed the news that the war was over on may 5 1901 while this is the date most frequently given for the end of the war fighting continued although on a smaller scale on 13 december 1901 the material for building the decauville railway vigía chico santa cruz was ordered in new orleans it was officially opened on 4 september 1905 with their capital lost the cruzob split into smaller groups often hiding in small hamlets in the jungle their numbers were seriously reduced by deaths from epidemics of measles and smallpox endemic diseases carried by general bravo s troops inspired by the persistent talking cross sect the maya of chan santa cruz remained actively hostile to the mexican government well into the twentieth century for many years any non maya who entered the jungles of what is now the mexican state of quintana roo was at risk of being killed outright the combination of new economic factors such as the entry of the wrigley company s chicle hunters into the region and the political and social changes resulting from the mexican revolution eventually reduced the hatred and hostility in one form or another war and armed struggle had continued for more than 50 years and an estimated 40 000 50 000 people died in the hostilities the war was officially declared over for the final time in september 1915 by general salvador alvarado alvarado sent by the revolutionary government in mexico city to restore order in yucatán became governor of the state and implemented reforms that mitigated grievances that had caused the conflict 28 although the war had been declared over many times before in previous decades records show that the last time the mexican army considered it necessary to take by force an area village that had never recognized mexican law was in april 1933 five maya and two mexican soldiers died in the battle for the village of dzula which was the last skirmish of a conflict lasting more than 85 years citation needed later developments edit see also chiapas conflict monument erected in 1883 in eulogio rosado park to the heroes of the caste war since the late 20th century a similar conflict has existed in the mexican state of chiapas in the southern part of the country in which indigenous people have declared war on the mexican government the maya zapatista army ezln on january 1 1994 the day when the north american free trade agreement nafta came into effect issued its first declaration from the lacandon jungle and its revolutionary laws the ezln effectively declared war on the mexican government which it considered sufficiently out of touch with the will of the people to make it illegitimate the ezln stressed that it opted for armed struggle due to the lack of results achieved through peaceful means of protest such as sit ins and marches 29 in september 2020 archaeologists from the instituto nacional de antropología e historia inah identified the remains of the ship la unión as one that was used to carry maya slaves from yucatán to cuba during the caste war 30 in 2021 the governments of mexico and guatemala apologized to the maya people for the repression and war of extermination carried out by both states in the almost 50 years that the war lasted see also edit chan santa cruz justo sierra o reilly indigenous land rights list of wars involving mexico casta zapatista army of national liberation references edit gabbert w 2019 violence and the caste war of yucatán cambridge latin american studies cambridge cambridge university press page 269 1 2 the caste war ancient and living maya in the 19th and 20th centuries archaeological discovery literary voice and political struggle unc libraries exhibits lib unc edu retrieved 2023 08 13 arturo arias 2018 recovering lost footprints volume 2 contemporary maya narratives state university of new york press p 48 isbn 978 1438472607 reed nelson a 2001 the caste war of yucatán rev ed stanford calif stanford university press isbn 978 0 8047 4000 5 caste wars oxford reference the caste war of yucatán obo retrieved 2023 08 13 nichols christopher m caste wars in davíd carrasco ed the oxford 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