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political success and became the unquestioned orthodoxy 20 following the communist victory in 1949 maoism became the dominant state ideological system during the later stages of the cultural revolution its discourse became increasingly ritualized and detached from theoretical coherence 21 although the maoist period ended in 1976 mao zedong thought remains one of the guiding ideologies of the chinese communist party and its paradigmatic impact on philosophical discourse institutional norms and modes of intellectual expression continues to shape chinese thought 22 since the 1980s chinese philosophy has gradually diversified under conditions of economic reform new confucianism initially developed by scholars in taiwan and hong kong such as mou zongsan and tang junyi was reintroduced into the mainland and engaged in dialogue with western humanism 23 at the same time marxist humanism existentialism phenomenology frankfurt school rawlsianism and analytic philosophy gained influence in academic circles 24 state ideology shifted toward socialism with chinese characteristics emphasizing pragmatism and national rejuvenation while selectively drawing on traditional values though political constraints remain contemporary philosophers have attempted to develop original frameworks addressing global ethics language and subjectivity nevertheless the legacy of revolutionary philosophy and ongoing state involvement in ideology continue to shape the structure and limits of philosophical inquiry in china 4 in addition to the confucian daoist and buddhist traditions rooted in han cultural regions other philosophical systems developed across china s multiethnic landscape tibetan buddhism which took shape from the yuan dynasty onward formed a systematic tradition incorporating madhyamaka thought and buddhist logic pramāṇa 因明 particularly through the gelug school founded by tsongkhapa this tradition had a major influence on mongolian and manchu political institutions and continues to play a central role in tibetan intellectual life 25 beginning in the 17th century catholic missionaries especially jesuits like matteo ricci and johann adam schall von bell introduced aristotelian and thomistic philosophy to china they translated western philosophical concepts into confucian terminology and attempted to establish a dialogue between catholic theology and chinese ethical traditions although controversial these efforts created an enduring legacy of cross cultural exchange that shaped the development of modern chinese intellectual history 13 islamic philosophy in china often referred to as islamic heavenly studies 天方理學 flourished particularly during the ming and qing dynasties muslim scholars such as liu zhi and ma zhu synthesized islamic theology with confucian ethics developing distinctive metaphysical and ethical frameworks known as hui confucianism 回儒 their works reflected efforts to reconcile islamic and chinese thought within a shared intellectual world 13 early beliefs edit early shang dynasty thought was based on cycles like the 10 stems and 12 earthly branches this notion stems from what the people of the shang dynasty could observe around them day and night cycles the seasons progressed again and again and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again thus this notion which remained relevant throughout chinese history reflects the order of nature in juxtaposition it also marks a fundamental distinction from western philosophy in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression during the shang ancestor worship was present and universally recognized 26 when the shang were overthrown by the zhou a new political religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the mandate of heaven this mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a justification for zhou rule it is said that the duke of zhou made the early solar terms by measuring with a gnomon that was added to make the complete solar terms he is also said to have used try squares and wrote the zhoubi suanjing 27 with his astrologer several early beliefs might be found in the guicang and perhaps the earliest chinese book the small calendar of the xia in da dai liji though debated to exist the xia dynasty is said to be its origin 28 ancient philosophy edit part of a series on chinese folk religion chinese culture concepts basic concepts tiān shàngdì qì shén líng xiānlíng yīnyáng wǔxíng hùndùn mìngyùn yuánfèn bàoyìng wū fundamental theories creation myth mythology dragons azure dragon vermilion bird white tiger black turtle snake theology spiritual world concepts astrology bāzì zodiac models of humanity xiān zhēnrén wén and wǔ gods and immortals yùhuáng xīwángmǔ dǒumǔ pángǔ fúxī nǚwā shénnóng lóngwáng yánluówáng huángdì guānyīn guānyǔ cáishén tǔdìgōng bāxiān jìgōng bǎoshēng dàdì māzǔ taoist deities chinese buddhist deities practices main practices ancestral veneration communal deity worship fortune telling qiúqiān geomancy incense offering qìgōng shamanism spirit medium wū temple fair traditional medicine food therapy other practices bǎojuàn fēnxiāng folk ritual masters orders mother goddess worship festivals chinese new year lantern festival qīngmíng festival ghost festival yúlánpén mid autumn festival nine emperor gods festival qīxì festival duānwǔ festival traditions philosophical traditions confucianism neo confucianism state rites taoism three teachings other philosophies mòism devotional traditions māzǔism ong yah worship groups institutions lineage associations surnames ancestral shrine chinese temples chinese folk temples association chinese taoist association associations of good doing zhenkong void of truth salvationist sects bāguàdào dé teaching hóngyángism tàishàngmén jiǔgōngdào mílè teachings báilián teachings luó teaching zhāijiāo xiāntiāndào yīguàndào mílèdàdào yáochídào tiandihui tiāndì teachings tiānxiān miàodào xià teaching wéixīnism zàilǐ teaching confucian churches holy confucian church indonesian confucian council shànréndào phoenix churches xuānyuánism tàigǔ school regional variants southeast asia běnzhǔism bìmóism běn bon dábā dōngbāism miáo folk religion móism northeast china folk religion nuó folk religion qiāng folk religion yáo folk religion related beliefs vietnamese folk religion hàn buddhism protestant house church religion portal v t e spring and autumn period edit main article hundred schools of thought around 500 bce after the zhou state weakened and china moved into the spring and autumn period the classic period of chinese philosophy began this is known as the hundred schools of thought this period is considered the golden age of chinese philosophy of the many schools founded at this time and during the subsequent warring states period the four most influential ones were confucianism daoism often spelled taoism mohism and legalism 8 29 confucianism edit kong fuzi latin confucius main article confucianism confucianism is a philosophical school developed from the teachings of confucius collected and written by his disciples after his death in the analects and in the warring states period mencius in the mencius and xunzi in the xunzi it is a system of moral social political and religious thought that has had tremendous influence on chinese history thought and culture down to the 20th century some westerners have considered it to have been the state religion of imperial china because of its lasting influence on asian culture its influence also spread to korea japan vietnam and many other asian countries 30 confucianism reached its peak of influence during the tang and song dynasties under a rebranded confucianism called neo confucianism confucius expanded on the already present ideas of chinese religion and culture to reflect the time period and environment of political chaos during the warring states period because confucius embedded the chinese culture so heavily into his philosophy it was able to resonate with the people of china however the relationship between confucianism and contemporary chinese society is continuously transforming reflecting the evolving cultural political and social landscape of modern china 31 the major confucian concepts include filial piety loyalty 忠 zhōng li ritual ren humanity or humaneness the rectification of names i e to ensure everything is what its name implies it should be 32 confucius taught both positive and negative versions of the golden rule the concepts yin and yang represent two opposing forces that are permanently in conflict with each other leading to perpetual contradiction and change the confucian idea of rid of the two ends take the middle is a chinese equivalent of the idea of thesis antithesis and synthesis often attributed to hegel which is a way of reconciling opposites arriving at some middle ground combining the best of both citation needed confucius heavily emphasized the idea of microcosms in society subunits of family and community success s were the foundations for a successful state or country confucius believed in the use of education to further knowledge the people in ethics societal behavior and reverence in other humans with the combination of education successful family and his ethical teachings he believed he could govern a well established society in china citation needed taoism edit chinese glazed stoneware statue of a daoist deity from the ming dynasty 16th century main article taoist philosophy bagua modern taijitu with i ching trigrams taoism arose as a philosophy and later also developed into a religion based on the texts the tao te ching ascribed to laozi and the zhuangzi partly ascribed to zhuang zhou the word tao 道 also transliterated as dao literally means path or way however in taoism it refers more often to a meta physical force that encompasses the entire universe but which cannot be described nor felt all major chinese philosophical schools have investigated the correct way to go about a moral life but in taoism it takes on the most abstract meanings leading this school to be named after it it advocated nonaction wu wei the strength of softness spontaneity and relativism although it serves as a rival to confucianism a school of active morality this rivalry is compromised and given perspective by the idiom practice confucianism on the outside taoism on the inside most of taoism s focus is on the notion that human attempts to make the world better actually make the world worse therefore it is better to strive for harmony minimising potentially harmful interference with nature or in human affairs 33 warring states period edit legalism edit main article legalism chinese philosophy philosopher han fei synthesized together earlier the methods of his predecessors which famous historian sima tan posthumously termed legalism with an essential principle like when the epoch changed the ways changed late pre han dynasty reformers emphasized rule by law in han fei s philosophy a ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity fa 法 fǎ law or principle shu 術 shù method tactic art or statecraft shi 勢 shì legitimacy power or charisma what has been termed by some as the intrastate realpolitik of the warring states period was highly progressive and extremely critical of the confucian and mohist schools but that of the qin dynasty would be blamed for creating a totalitarian society thereby experiencing decline its main motto is set clear strict laws or deliver harsh punishment in han fei s philosophy the ruler possessed authority regarding reward and penalty enacted through law shang yang and han fei promoted absolute adherence to the law regardless of the circumstances or the person ministers were only to be rewarded if their words were accurate to the results of their proposals legalism in accordance with shang yang s interpretation could encourage the state to be a militaristic autarky naturalists edit main article school of naturalists the school of naturalists or the school of yin yang chinese 陰陽家 pinyin yīnyángjiā wade giles yin yang chia lit school of yin yang was a warring states era philosophy that synthesized the concepts of yin yang and the wuxing zou yan is considered the founder of this school 34 his theory attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature the complementary agents of yin dark cold female negative and yang light hot male positive and the five elements or five phases water fire wood metal and earth in its early days this theory was most strongly associated with the states of yan and qi in later periods these epistemological theories came to hold significance in both philosophy and popular belief this school was absorbed into taoism s alchemic and magical dimensions as well as into the chinese medical framework the earliest surviving recordings of this are in the mawangdui texts and huangdi neijing mohism edit main article mohism mohism moism founded by mozi promotes universal love with the aim of mutual benefit everyone must love each other equally and impartially to avoid conflict and war mozi was strongly against confucian ritual instead emphasizing pragmatic survival through farming fortification and statecraft tradition is inconsistent and human beings need an extra traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable the moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize general benefit as motivation for his theory mozi brought in the will of heaven but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels utilitarianism logicians edit main article school of names the logicians school of names were concerned with logic paradoxes names and actuality similar to confucian rectification of names the logician hui shi was a friendly rival to zhuangzi arguing against taoism in a light hearted and humorous manner another logician gongsun long originated the famous when a white horse is not a horse dialogue agriculturalists edit main article agriculturalism agriculturalism was an early agrarian social and political philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism 35 the philosophy is founded on the notion that human society originates with the development of agriculture and societies are based upon people s natural propensity to farm 36 the agriculturalists believed that the ideal government modeled after the semi mythical governance of shennong is led by a benevolent king one who works alongside the people in tilling the fields the agriculturalist king is not paid by the government through its treasuries his livelihood is derived from the profits he earns working in the fields not his leadership 37 unlike the confucians the agriculturalists did not believe in the division of labour arguing instead that the economic policies of a country need to be based upon an egalitarian self sufficiency the agriculturalists supported the fixing of prices in which all similar goods regardless of differences in quality and demand are set at ...