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not consider them as rational deterrents citation needed this philosophy was replaced by the positivist and chicago schools and was not revived until the 1970s with the writings of james q wilson gary becker s 1965 article crime and punishment 69 and george stigler s 1970 article the optimum enforcement of laws 70 rational choice theory argues that criminals like other people weigh costs or risks and benefits when deciding whether to commit crime and think in economic terms 71 page needed they will also try to minimize risks of crime by considering the time place and other situational factors 71 becker for example acknowledged that many people operate under high moral and ethical constraints but argued that criminals rationally see that the benefits of their crime outweigh the costs such as the probability of apprehension and conviction the severity of punishment and their current set of opportunities from the public policy perspective since the cost of increasing the fine is marginal to that of increasing surveillance one can conclude that the best policy is to maximize the fine and minimize surveillance citation needed with this perspective crime prevention or reduction measures can be devised to increase the effort required to commit the crime such as target hardening 72 page needed rational choice theories also suggest that increasing risk and likelihood of being caught through added surveillance law enforcement presence added street lighting and other measures are effective in reducing crime 72 page needed one of the main differences between this theory and bentham s rational choice theory is that bentham considered it possible to annihilate crime through the panopticon whereas becker s theory acknowledged that a society could not eradicate crime beneath a certain level for example if 25 of a supermarket s products were stolen it would be very easy to reduce this rate to 15 quite easy to reduce it until 5 difficult to reduce it under 3 and nearly impossible to reduce it to zero a feat which the measures required would cost the supermarket so much that it would outweigh the benefits this reveals that the goals of utilitarianism and classical liberalism have to be tempered and reduced to more modest proposals to be practically applicable citation needed such rational choice theories linked to neoliberalism have been at the basics of crime prevention through environmental design and underpin the market reduction approach to theft 73 by mike sutton which is a systematic toolkit for those seeking to focus attention on crime facilitators by tackling the markets for stolen goods 74 that motivate for thieves to supply them by theft 75 routine activity theory edit main article routine activity theory routine activity theory developed by marcus felson and lawrence cohen draws on control theories and explains crime in terms of opportunities for crime that arise in everyday life 76 a crime opportunity requires that elements converge in time and place including a motivated offender a suitable target or victim and a lack of a capable guardian 77 78 a guardian at a place such as a street could include security guards or even ordinary pedestrians who would witness the criminal act and possibly intervene or report it to law enforcement 77 routine activity theory was expanded by john eck who added a fourth element of place manager such as rental property managers who can take nuisance abatement measures 79 biosocial theory edit biosocial criminology is an interdisciplinary field that seeks to explain crime and antisocial behavior by examining biological and environmental factors while sociological theories have dominated contemporary criminology biosocial criminology also recognizes the potential contributions of fields such as behavioral genetics personality psychology and evolutionary psychology 80 various theoretical frameworks such as evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory have sought to explain trends in criminality through the lens of evolutionary biology specifically they seek to explain why criminality is so much higher in men than in women and why young men are most likely to exhibit criminal behavior 81 aggressive behavior has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body serotonin systems catecholamine systems and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical axis abnormalities in these systems are also known to be induced by stress either severe acute stress or chronic low grade stress 82 biosocial approaches remain very controversial within the scientific field 83 page needed 84 page needed marxist edit main article marxist criminology in 1968 young british sociologists formed the national deviance conference ndc group the group restricted to academics consisted of 300 members ian taylor paul walton and jock young members of the ndc rejected previous explanations of crime and deviance thus they decided to pursue a new marxist criminological approach 85 165 in the new criminology they argued against the biological positivism perspective represented by lombroso hans eysenck and gordon trasler 85 169 according to the marxist perspective on crime defiance is normal the sense that men are now consciously involved in assuring their human diversity thus marxist criminologists argued for a society in which the facts of human diversity whether social or personal would not be criminalized 86 they further attributed the processes of crime creation not to genetic or psychological facts but rather to the material basis of a given society 87 state crime is a distinct category of crimes studied by marxist criminology which considers these crimes among the most costly to society in terms of overall harm injury in a marxist framework genocides environmental degradation and war are not crimes that occur out of contempt for one s fellow man but are crimes of power they continue systems of control and hegemony which allow state crime and state corporate crime along with state corporate non profit criminals to continue governing people 88 page needed convict edit convict criminology is a school of thought in the realm of criminology convict criminologists have been directly affected by the criminal justice system oftentimes having spent years inside the prison system researchers in the field of convict criminology such as john irwin and stephan richards argue that traditional criminology can be better understood by those who lived within prison walls 89 martin leyva argues that prisonization oftentimes begins before prison in the home community and schools 90 according to rod earle convict criminology began in the united states following the major expansion of prisons in the 1970s and the u s remains the primary focus for those who study convict criminology 91 page needed queer edit queer criminology is a field of study that focuses on lgbt individuals and their interactions with the criminal justice system the goals of this field of study are as follows citation needed to better understand the history of lgbt individuals and the laws put against the community why lgbt citizens are incarcerated and if or why they are arrested at higher rates than heterosexual and cisgender individuals how queer activists have fought against oppressive laws that criminalized lgbt individuals to conduct research and use it as a form of activism through education legitimacy of queer criminology the value of pursuing criminology from a queer theorist perspective is contested some believe that it is not worth researching and not relevant to the field as a whole and as a result it is a subject that lacks a wide range of research available on the other hand it could be argued that this subject is highly valuable in highlighting how lgbt individuals are affected by the criminal justice system this research also has the opportunity to queer the curriculum of criminology in educational institutions by shifting the focus from controlling and monitoring lgbt communities to liberating and protecting them 92 as more and more people identify as something other than heterosexual queer criminology continues to grow in relevance at the same time in jurisdictions such as russia uganda and ghana governments have become even more punitive through laws that expand the criminalization of lgbtq conduct relationships and organizing 93 digiqueer criminology has emerged as a sub discipline of queer criminology and aims to deepen understanding of the relationship between digital technology lgbtq identity and justice 93 94 cultural edit cultural criminology views crime and its control within the context of culture 95 96 ferrell believes criminologists can examine the actions of criminals control agents media producers and others to construct the meaning of crime 96 he discusses these actions as a means to show the dominant role of culture 96 kane adds that cultural criminology has three tropes village city street and media in which males can be geographically influenced by society s views on what is broadcast and accepted as right or wrong 97 the village is where one engages in available social activities linking an individual s history to a location can help determine social dynamics 97 the city street involves positioning oneself in the cultural area this is full of those affected by poverty poor health and crime and large buildings that impact the city but not the neighborhoods 97 mass media gives an all around account of the environment and the possible other subcultures that could exist beyond a specific geographical area 97 it was later that naegler and salman introduced feminist theory to cultural criminology and discussed masculinity and femininity sexual attraction and sexuality and intersectional themes 98 naegler and salman believed that ferrell s mold was limited and that they could add to the understanding of cultural criminology by studying women and those who do not fit ferrell s mold 98 hayward would later add that not only feminist theory but green theory as well played a role in the cultural criminology theory through the lens of adrenaline the soft city the transgressive subject and the attentive gaze 95 the adrenaline lens deals with rational choice and what causes a person to have their own terms of availability opportunity and low levels of social control 95 the soft city lens deals with reality outside of the city and the imaginary sense of reality the world where transgression occurs where rigidity is slanted and where rules are bent 95 the transgressive subject refers to a person who is attracted to rule breaking and is attempting to be themselves in a world where everyone is against them 95 the attentive gaze is when someone mainly an ethnographer is immersed into the culture and interested in lifestyle s and the symbolic aesthetic and visual aspects when examined they are left with the knowledge that they are not all the same but they come to a settlement to live together in the same space 95 through it all the sociological perspective on cultural criminology theory attempts to understand how the environment an individual is in determines their criminal behavior 96 relative deprivation edit relative deprivation involves the process where an individual measures their own well being and materialistic worth against that of other people and perceives that they are worse off in comparison 99 when humans fail to obtain what they believe they are owed they can experience anger or jealousy over the notion that they have been wrongly disadvantaged citation needed relative deprivation was originally used in sociology by samuel a stouffer a pioneer of the theory stouffer revealed that soldiers fighting in world war ii measured their personal success by the experience in their units rather than by the standards set by the military 100 relative deprivation can be made up of societal political economic or personal factors that create a sense of injustice it is not based on absolute poverty a condition where one cannot meet a necessary level to maintain basic living standards rather relative deprivation holds that even if a person is financially stable they can still feel relatively deprived the perception of relative deprivation can lead to criminal behavior and or morally problematic decisions 101 relative deprivation theory has increasingly been used to partially explain crime as rising living standards can result in rising crime levels in criminology the theory of relative deprivation explains that people who feel jealous and discontented with others might turn to crime to acquire things they cannot afford citation needed rural edit rural crime redirects here for illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals see poaching rural criminology is the study of crime trends outside of metropolitan and suburban areas rural criminologists have used social disorganization and routine activity theories the fbi uniform crime report shows that rural communities have significantly different crime trends than metropolitan and suburban areas the crime in rural communities consists predominantly of narcotic related crimes such as the production use and trafficking of narcotics social disorganization theory is used to examine the trends involving narcotics 102 social disorganization leads to narcotic use in rural areas because of low educational opportunities and high unemployment rates routine activity theory is used to examine all low level street crimes such as theft 103 much of the crime in rural areas is explained through routine activity theory because there is often a lack of capable guardians in rural areas citation needed epidemiological criminology edit epidemiological criminology sometimes abbreviated as epicrim is an interdisciplinary approach that applies concepts and methods from epidemiology and public health to the study of crime violence victimization and criminal justice involvement 104 traditional criminology studies crime criminal behavior victimization punishment and society s responses to crime epidemiological criminology keeps those concerns but adds population level questions common in epidemiology including who is affected where patterns occur what risk or protective factors are present and how prevention efforts can be evaluated 105 the approach has been described as a way to connect criminology criminal justice public health epidemiology public policy and law 106 other works have used epidemiological criminology to frame public health and crime education partnerships 107 and to describe crime as a problem of the social body 108 it is especially relevant to topics where crime and health overlap including violence prevention substance abuse offender and victim health and the health effects of criminal justice involvement 109 epidemiological criminology is therefore best understood not as a replacement for traditional criminology but as a prevention oriented extension of it public edit public criminology is a strand within ...