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ced into muhammadan law almost invariably at a secondary stage 210 schacht further states that every legal tradition from muhammad must be taken as an inauthentic and fictitious expression of a legal doctrine formulated at a later date we shall not meet any legal tradition from the prophet which can positively be considered authentic 211 what is evident regarding the compilation of the quran is the disagreement between the companions of muhammad earliest supporters of muhammad as evidenced by their several disagreements regarding interpretation and particular versions of the quran and their interpretative hadith and sunna namely the mutawatir mushaf having come into present form after muhammad s death 212 john burton s work the collection of the quran further explores how certain quranic texts were altered to adjust interpretation in regard to controversy between fiqh human understanding of sharia and madhahib refers to any school of thought within islamic jurisprudence 213 scientific and historical accuracy edit main article islamic attitudes towards science the holy quran enjoins us to reflect on the verities of allah s created laws of nature however that our generation has been privileged to glimpse a part of his design is a bounty and a grace for which i render thanks with a humble heart abdus salam 214 islam sees science and religion as complementary paths to one truth islamic theology views studying the natural world as a religious duty and worship not separate from sacred knowledge early scholars argued for the possibility of multiple scientific explanations of the natural phenomena and refused to subordinate the quran to a changing science 215 persian polymath al biruni 973 c 1050 ce regarded the quran as a separate and autonomous realm of its own and held that the quran does not interfere in the business of science nor does it infringe on the realm of science 215 see also astronomy in the medieval islamic world mathematics in the medieval islamic world medicine in the medieval islamic world physics in the medieval islamic world and science in the medieval islamic world dhu l qarnayn edit dhu al qarnayn building a wall with the help of the jinns to keep away gog and magog main article dhu l qarnayn the story of dhul qarnayn appears in 19 verses of the qur an specifically verses quran 18 83 101 translated by yusuf ali according to the quran the prophet king dhu l qarnayn traveled to the east and then on to the west then he constructed a wall to prevent incursions by gog and magog 216 most historians agree that the story of dhu al qarnayn comes from legends of alexander the great in the middle east where it was called the syriac alexander legend 217 218 muslim commentators have used theological arguments to reject the alexander identification dhu al qarnayn lived for upwards of 700 years as an indication of god s favor though this was not included in the quran and dhu al qarnayn adhered to one god while alexander was polytheistic 219 cyrus the great being dhul qarnayn is also supported by other thinkers who bring up these points the legend is further developed through centuries finally appearing in the quran via a syrian account 220 dating problems and missing elements cast doubt on the possible relationship between the quran and the syriac legend yet some also have responded to these arguments 221 the difference between the literalistic and allegorical versions of dhu l qarnayn is mainly one of whether he was a real historical ruler who constructed an iron wall or a symbolic type meant to communicate truths on the cosmic psychological or spiritual planes the following is a condensed table comparing real and allegorical accounts of the story there are myriad interpretations of each story element in allegorical form some of the more popular options are listed in the table story element literalist interpretation tafsir allegorical interpretation ta wil dhu l qarnayn a real ancient king 217 the perfected human soul or ideal leader the two horns a physical crown helmet or two land masses mastery over inner outer worlds or dual eras the traveller military campaigns to physical geographic borders the soul s journey through darkness to enlightenment gog magog real hidden tribes trapped behind a barrier internal chaos ego passions and spiritual corruption the wall a physical structure made of iron and molten copper quran 18 95 96 spiritual discipline intellect and divine protection josephus edit josephus main article josephus josephus a jewish historian in the 1st century gives the first extant reference to gates constructed by alexander designed to be a barrier against the scythians 222 according to this historian the people whom the greeks called scythians were known among the jews as magogites descendants of the group called magog in the hebrew bible josephus makes these references in two of his works the jewish war states that the iron gates alexander erected were controlled by the king of hyrcania on the south edge of the caspian and allowing passage of the gates to the alans whom josephus considered a scythic tribe resulted in the sack of media antiquities of the jews contains two relevant passages one giving the ancestry of scythians as descendants of magog son of japheth and another that refers to the caspian gates being breached by scythians allied to tiberius during the armenian war 223 cosmology edit this map depicts a traditional islamic projection of the world as a flat disk surrounded by the sundering seas which are restrained by the encircling mountains of qaf 224 main articles cosmology in the muslim world and quranic cosmology and he shaped the earth as a carpet then he ordained it the area under the firmament are just like those he uplifted dīwān umayya ibn abī al ṣalt p 179 cited in 225 click here for the poem in arabic before the introduction of greek cosmology into the islamic world muslims viewed the earth as flat the quran assumes a flat earth because it describes the earth s vastness and flatness quran 51 48 translated by yusuf ali comparable to pieces of flat furniture like a carpet bed or couch by the 10th century islamic scholars learned of astronomical advances and reinterpreted scriptures to state that the earth was spherical 226 muslim traditionalists who rejected greek and ptolemaic cosmological advances continued to hold this view while various theologians held opposing views 227 the main article discusses how critics challenge interpretations of quranic earth verses that rely on local flatness non literal meanings or lack of context see flat earth middle east islamic scholars criticism edit from a linguistic standpoint it is quite possible for a word phrase or statement to have more than one layer of meaning such that one layer would make sense to one audience in one age and another layer of meaning would without negating the first be meaningful to another audience in a subsequent age muntasir mir 228 229 for muslims the quran serves as a guide for theology morality and the relationship between humankind and god this belief is compatible with the doctrine of quranic inerrancy which asserts that the quran is the infallible and inerrant word of god revealed to muhammad by archangel gabriel in the 7th century ce 230 however many scholars argue that when the quran mentions items of the natural world like astronomy or the way humans develop before birth 231 these passages are there to provoke reflections rather than convey scientific knowledge they argue the quran isn t a science textbook but a poetic 7th century arabian work on observations of nature lacking modern scientific features like citations or experiments for example matching vague verses to modern discoveries relies on retroactive interpretation post hoc fitting and some literal descriptions align with 7th century greco roman or near eastern folk science rather than modern scientific consensus 232 lastly it is noted a perfect communicator would not have included misleading statements in the quran the following scholars offered their views on the lack of scientific validity of the quran ziauddin sardar states that it requires considerable mental gymnastics and distortions to find scientific facts or theories in these verses 233 zafar ishaq ansari argues from the perspective of islam that while the quran is the source of guidance in right faith iman and righteous action alladhina amanu wa amilu l salihat the notion of it containing all knowledge including scientific knowledge is not a mainstream view among muslim scholarship 234 hamza tzortzis an islamic intellectual and researcher argued in his essay does the qur an contain scientific miracles a new approach the qur an is a book of ayat signs not a science textbook trying to force a scientific reading upon the text commits the fallacy of scientism and ignores the linguistic and historical context of the arabic language 235 nidhal guessoum an algerian astrophysicist points out in his book islam s quantum question reconciling muslim tradition and modern science critiques the popularized claims of scientific miracles he argues that science is constantly shifting based on fresh evidence religious writings offer timeless wisdom on spiritual and ethical matters tying the quran to mutable scientific theories he warns harms the text s credibility 236 the back and forth arguments of the nature of the quran far exceed the scope of this article section this section singled out a mere fraction of the disagreements other articles detailing these issues are listed below see also historical reliability of the quran history of evolutionary thought islamic philosophy and the struggle for existence islamic attitudes towards science science and the quran i jaz islamic mythology relationship between science and religion and religious interpretations of the big bang theory islam and scientific errors in the quran ethics edit main articles islamic ethics and morality in islam the present condition of mankind offers surely with all its dangers and all its challenges a chance of establishing not just material peace among nations but that better peace of god on earth in that endeavour islam can play its valuable constructive part and the islamic world can be a strong and stabilising factor provided it is really understood and its spiritual and moral power recognised and respected aga khan iii 237 akhlaq أخلاق or islamic ethics is a complete set of moral principles key islamic ethics include divine oneness god consciousness justice mercy and trustworthiness these values originate from the quran the hadith the prophet muhammad s life and the teachings of key islamic scholars and leaders 238 textstyle core values of islamic ethics as expressed in the quran principle brief value quranic verse adl arabic عَدْل justice and fairness 239 treating everyone fairly and equally in words and actions without letting personal feelings or social standing interfere o you who have believed be persistently standing firm for allah witnesses in justice quran 4 135 o ye who believe stand out firmly for allah as witnesses to fair dealing and let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice quran 5 8 amanah arabic أمانة trustworthiness and responsibility 240 upholding promises ensuring the security of public and private trusts and practicing unwavering honesty in commerce and communication indeed allah commands you to render trusts to whom they are due quran 4 58 ihsan arabic إحسان do beautiful things 241 asking one s inner faith iman and showing it in both deed and action a sense of social responsibility born from religious convictions lo allah enjoineth justice and kindness and giving to kinsfolk and forbiddeth lewdness and abomination and wickedness he exhorteth you in order that ye may take heed quran 16 9 9 rahmah arabic رحمة compassion and mercy 242 extending empathy and genuine kindness to all living things reflects god s core characteristics and we have not sent you o muhammad except as a mercy to the worlds quran 21 107 taqwa arabic تقوى god consciousness and vigilance 243 internal moral compass guided by divine awareness indeed the most noble of you in the sight of allah is the most righteous has taqwa of you quran 49 13 tawhid arabic توحيد divine oneness and unity 244 belief in god as the sole creator implies all morals originate from one divine source aligning human purpose he is allah the one and only allah the eternal absolute he begetteth not nor is he begotten and there is none like unto him quran 112 1 4 surah al ikhlas v1 4 which gives the bearer protection against evils and dangers polemical work critiquing the quran and islam christian friar preaching to muslims islamic ethics criticism edit certain critics perceive the quran s ethical framework as a step backward from the moral progress manifested in judaism and christianity even though the quran states it builds upon earlier faiths the subsequent two cases serve as examples the catholic encyclopedia states that the ethics of islam are far inferior to those of judaism and even more inferior to those of the new testament and that in the ethics of islam there is a great deal to admire and to approve is beyond dispute but of originality or superiority there is none 245 william montgomery watt however finds muhammad s changes an improvement for his time and place in his day and generation muhammad was a social reformer indeed a reformer even in the sphere of morals he created a new system of social security and a new family structure both of which were a vast improvement on what went before by taking what was best in the morality of the nomad and adapting it for settled communities he established a religious and social framework for the life of many races of men 246 islam and violence edit main articles islam and violence and violence in the quran lo those who disbelieve kafir among the people of the scripture and the idolaters will abide in fire of hell they are the worst of created beings quran 98 6 today the quran contains oral recitations made by muhammad over 23 years in different times places contexts and situations because context interpretation and translation are all important for the understanding of violence in our world it s impossible to say how many verses in the quran are violent what one person thinks is violent language another person might take as historical or advice on self defense even studying the verses frequently cited for warfare should be done in context and in relation to the historical events that have led to them these warfare passages are typically classified into defense strict warnings and the controversial sword verse 247 to put it simply the verses frequently used to prove the quran s inherent violence are usually removed from their original context 248 when the commonly cited violent verses are examined in their proper context an altogether different picture emerges people who attempt to...