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h he attributed to the stress of his work and dire financial circumstances 55 his friend and collaborator friedrich engels provided crucial financial and intellectual support throughout this period frequently urging marx to complete the work 56 in february 1867 shortly before delivering the first volume to the printers marx urged engels to read honoré de balzac s the unknown masterpiece he saw a parallel between the story s protagonist a painter who endlessly reworks his masterpiece to the point where nothing remains and his own protracted struggle with capital 57 this anecdote reveals marx s anxieties about the intelligibility and reception of his complex work as well as his self perception as a creative artist engaged in a monumental task 58 marx s initial plan for capital drawn up in 1857 was much broader than the published volumes it envisioned six books on capital landed property wage labour the state international trade and the world market and crises 59 this plan was revised several times the formerly central concept of capital in general which abstracted from the competition between many capitals was abandoned after 1863 leading to a new structure for the work 60 by 1865 66 the structure had been modified to a four volume work on capital with the first three volumes corresponding to the ones published and the fourth volume dedicated to the history of economic theory 61 topics such as wage labour and landed property were integrated into volume i and volume iii analysis of ground rent respectively 62 while the volumes of capital are often considered marx s complete work they only correspond to the first book of his scrapped six book plan 63 64 the conceptual apparatus he developed particularly in its opening chapters was intended to lay the foundation for a much broader analysis of topics such as the state the world market and crises which never came to fruition 65 66 64 67 synopsis edit volume i the process of production of capital edit volume i published in 1867 is marx s most extensive and historically detailed work focusing on the immediate process of production of capital it lays out the foundational categories of his critique of political economy and traces the ways in which surplus value is generated through the exploitation of labour part i commodities and money edit depiction of covent garden market in london by phoebus levin 1864 marx analysed the commodity as the elementary form of wealth in capitalist societies where myriad goods are exchanged in bustling marketplaces 68 marx begins his analysis with the commodity as the elementary form of wealth in capitalist societies where wealth appears as an immense collection of commodities 69 he establishes its dual character it has a use value satisfying some human want or need and an exchange value the quantitative proportion in which it exchanges for other commodities 70 this commensurability in exchange marx argues points to an underlying common element value 71 the substance of value is congealed human labour in the abstract a social substance that commodities possess not individually but communally through their relationship in exchange 72 crucial to marx s theory is the distinction between concrete labour specific purposeful activities like weaving or tailoring and abstract labour labour as a general social mediation abstract labour is not a physiological expenditure but a historically specific social category unique to capitalism where labour serves as the means by which individuals acquire the products of others 73 the magnitude of value is determined by socially necessary labour time the average time required to produce a commodity under normal conditions of production with the average degree of skill and intensity prevalent in that society 74 for a commodity to have value its labour must be useful meaning it must produce a use value that someone wants needs or desires 75 this section introduces the concept of the fetishism of commodities where the social relations between producers assume the fantastic form of a relation between things 76 this value objectivity which marx describes as spectral or phantom like is a socio natural property that appears to belong to commodities themselves but is in fact the result of a specific social structure 77 the market system and money forms disguise these real social relations making them appear as objective properties of the commodities 78 british gold sovereign featuring queen victoria 1842 marx discussed gold as the primary money commodity in his time serving as a universal equivalent and measure of value 79 the exchange process itself necessitates a universal equivalent a money commodity historically gold and silver 80 marx traces the conceptual development of the form of value from the simple or accidental form through the expanded and general forms to the money form arguing that this development is not historical but logical 81 money serves as a measure of value allowing commodities to express their values as price and as a medium of circulation facilitating the exchange of commodities c m c 82 these two functions are contradictory as a measure of value money should be stable like gold but as a means of circulation it needs to be efficient and adaptable leading to the use of tokens and credit money 83 the circulation of commodities c m c selling in order to buy contains the formal possibility of crises as the sale c m and the purchase m c are separated in time and space meaning there is no automatic guarantee that a sale will be followed by a purchase 84 money also functions as a hoard a store of value as a means of payment for settling debts introducing the creditor debtor relation and as world money in international trade 85 part ii the transformation of money into capital edit the floor of the new york stock exchange in 1908 the circulation m c m buying in order to sell dearer is the general formula for capital a process central to financial markets 86 marx then examines how money is transformed into capital the simple circulation of commodities is c m c selling in order to buy another commodity of equivalent value capital however circulates as m c m buying in order to sell dearer where m is m δm the increment δm being surplus value 87 capital is thus defined not as a thing like money or machines but as a process value in motion specifically self valorising value which becomes an automatic subject 88 the capitalist as the conscious bearer of this movement is driven by the unceasing movement of profit making 89 marx argues that surplus value cannot arise from the sphere of circulation if equivalents are exchanged m c and c m both adhering to value equivalence 90 while individual capitalists might cheat by buying cheap or selling dear this merely redistributes existing value the problem is to explain how the capitalist class as a whole can extract surplus value while adhering to the laws of commodity exchange 91 the solution lies in finding a unique commodity whose use value is itself a source of more value than it costs this commodity is labour power the capacity to labour 92 for labour power to be available as a commodity two conditions must be met the labourer must be a free proprietor of their labour power able to sell it for a definite period and the labourer must be free in the double sense of not possessing the means of production thus having no other commodity to sell and being compelled to sell their labour power to survive 93 this double freedom is the result of a historical process of primitive accumulation which divorces the producers from the means of production 94 the value of labour power is determined like that of any other commodity by the labour time necessary for its reproduction this includes the means of subsistence required to maintain the labourer in their normal state as a working individual and to reproduce the working class 95 marx emphasises that this value contains a historical and moral element varying according to the level of civilisation the habits and expectations of the working class and the outcomes of class struggle 96 the capitalist purchases labour power at its value and then consumes its use value in the labour process the secret of profit making is that the value created by the labourer in the production process is greater than the value of their own labour power 97 part iii the production of absolute surplus value edit depiction of power loom weaving in a british cotton mill 1835 the textile industry a key focus for marx exemplified the capitalist labour process where absolute surplus value was extracted by prolonging the working day 98 marx moves from the sphere of circulation a very eden of the innate rights of man into the hidden abode of production 99 the capitalist production process is a unity of the labour process the purposeful activity of producing use values and the valorisation process the process of creating value and surplus value 100 in the labour process the capitalist controls the work and owns the product 101 this generates a rebellious attitude in the worker who is now subordinated to an external purpose 102 capital advanced is divided into constant capital c the value of the means of production raw materials auxiliary materials and instruments of labour and variable capital v the value laid out in purchasing labour power 103 constant capital merely transfers its existing value to the new product while variable capital through the expenditure of living labour creates new value 104 the new value created is greater than the value of the variable capital v this excess is surplus value s the total value of the commodity is thus c v s 105 the rate of surplus value s v is the measure of the exploitation of labour power 105 it expresses the ratio of surplus labour time the time the worker labours beyond what is necessary to reproduce the value of their labour power to necessary labour time the time required to reproduce the value of labour power 106 the working day is the site of a struggle between the capitalist class seeking to maximise its length and the working class seeking to limit it 107 capital as dead labour which vampire like lives only by sucking living labour has an inherent drive to extend the working day beyond its physical and social limits 108 this struggle is not resolvable by appeals to the rights of commodity exchange as both capitalist and worker can claim their rights as buyer and seller respectively between equal rights force decides leading to a historical struggle exemplified by the fight for the factory acts in britain 109 marx details the often brutal conditions and excessive hours imposed on workers particularly women and children in various industries 98 the establishment of a normal working day is thus a product of protracted class struggle and state intervention influenced by factors such as the need for a healthy workforce and military conscripts 110 absolute surplus value is produced by prolonging the working day thus extending surplus labour time given a constant necessary labour time 111 the mass of surplus value is the rate of surplus value multiplied by the number of labourers employed 112 part iv the production of relative surplus value edit the ford motor company assembly line 1913 the factory system with its advanced division of labour and machinery is a key site for the production of relative surplus value by increasing productivity 113 relative surplus value is produced by shortening necessary labour time typically through increases in the productivity of labour in those industries that produce wage goods 114 if the value of the means of subsistence falls the value of labour power also falls allowing the capitalist to appropriate a larger share of the working day as surplus labour time even if the length of the working day remains constant or is shortened 115 individual capitalists are driven by the coercive laws of competition to seek an extra surplus value or extra profit by introducing new technologies or organisational methods that make their individual value of production lower than the social average 116 this extra surplus value is ephemeral disappearing once the new methods become generalised 116 this constant hunt for ephemeral extra surplus value is the immanent drive within capitalism for perpetual technological and organisational dynamism 117 marx notes that a rise in the physical standard of living of workers more use values can be compatible with a rising rate of exploitation if productivity increases sufficiently 118 marx then examines the specific methods of producing relative surplus value 119 cooperation the bringing together of many workers under the command of a single capitalist creates a new social productive power of labour a collective force greater than the sum of individual powers 120 this collective power appears as a productive power of capital itself 121 the capitalist s function of direction and supervision becomes necessary but it is also a function of exploitation a despotic command 122 division of labour and manufacture manufacture based on handicraft skills involves breaking down the production process into specialised partial operations performed by detail labourers 123 this increases productivity but converts the worker into a crippled monstrosity by suppressing a whole world of productive drives and inclinations 124 a hierarchical structure of labour powers emerges and the intellectual potentialities of production become concentrated in capital 125 marx distinguishes the division of labour in the workshop despotic and planned from the division of labour in society anarchic mediated by market exchange 126 machinery and large scale industry the introduction of machinery revolutionises the technical basis of production 113 the machine as a tool taken out of the worker s hands and incorporated into a mechanism confronts the worker as capital dead labour that dominates and pumps dry living labour power 127 the skill of the worker passes over to the machine and the worker becomes a mere appendage to the automatic system of machinery 128 machinery cheapens commodities and thus labour power and is a powerful weapon in the hands of capital for prolonging the working day to recoup its value before obsolescence intensifying labour and suppressing worker resistance 129 marx discusses the struggle between worker and machine noting that workers eventually learn to distinguish between machinery itself and its capitalist employment 130 the factory acts while limiting hours and regulating conditions also accelerate the concentration of capital and the generalisation of the factory system 131 large scale industry creates the material conditions for a new and higher synthesis of agriculture and industry but under capitalism this often leads to the ruining of the soil and the worker 132 marx notes the contradiction that capitalism requires an increasingly flexible adaptable and educated workf...