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gious prohibitions on anthropomorphic representations in art citation needed military edit the army of the delhi sultans initially consisted of nomadic turkic mamluk military slaves belonging to muhammad of ghor the nucleus of this south asian sultanate military was the turco afghani regular units named wajih which were composed of elite household cavalry archers who came from slave backgrounds 180 a major military contribution of the delhi sultanate was their successful campaigns repelling the mongol empire s invasions of india which could have been devastating for the indian subcontinent like the mongol invasions of china persia and europe were it not for the delhi sultanate the mongol empire may have been successful in invading india 41 the strength of the armies changes according to time historians state the delhi sultanate during the khalji dynasty maintained 300 000 to 400 000 horse cavalry and 2500 to 3000 war elephant as a standing army 181 182 183 184 185 186 its successor state the tughlaq dynasty further expanded into 500 000 horse cavalry in their force 183 economy edit main article economic history of india 1500 moghulistan phagmodrupas cham pa sibir khanate crimean khanate lithuania grand duchy khazan khanate astra khan muscovy nogais kazakh khanate ming dynasty four oirats northern yuan aq qoyunlu vijaya nagara bukhara khanate timurid empire delhi sultanate tungus ava lan xang ottoman empire mamluk sultanate jo seon malacca the delhi sultanate and main other polities circa 1500 transportation of the delhi topra pillar to delhi sirat i firuz shahi 14th century illustration 187 some historians argue that the delhi sultanate was responsible for making india more multicultural and cosmopolitan the establishment of the delhi sultanate in india has been compared to the expansion of the mongol empire and called part of a larger trend occurring throughout much of eurasia in which nomadic people migrated from the steppes of inner asia and became politically dominant 26 according to angus maddison between the years 1000 and 1500 india s gdp of which the sultanates represented a significant part grew nearly 8 to 60 5 billion in 1500 though the overall the percentage of the gdp share reduced from 33 to 22 188 according to maddison s estimates india s population grew from 85 million in 1200 to 101 million in 1500 14 the delhi sultanate period coincided with more use of mechanical technology in the indian subcontinent 189 india previously already had highly sophisticated agriculture food crops textiles medicine minerals and metals 189 water wheels also previously existed in india as described by various chinese monks and arab travellers and writers in their books 190 191 note 2 during the delhi sultanate various mechanical devices were introduced from the islamic world to india such as geared water raising wheels and other machines with gears pulleys cams and cranks 189 later mughal emperor babur provided a description on the use of water wheels in the delhi sultanate 196 according to historians arnold pacey and irfan habib the spinning wheel was introduced to india from iran during the delhi sultanate 197 smith and cothren suggested that it was invented in india during the latter half of the first millennium 198 but pacey and habib said these early references to cotton spinning do not identify a wheel but more likely refer to hand spinning 197 the earliest unambiguous reference to a spinning wheel in india is dated to 1350 197 the worm gear roller cotton gin was invented in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries habib states that the development may likely occurred in peninsular india before becoming more widespread across india during the mughal era 199 the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin may have appeared sometime during the late delhi sultanate or the early mughal empire 200 india and china have connections throughout thousands of years of history paper had already reached some parts of india as early as the 6th or 7th century 201 202 203 initially through chinese travellers and the ancient silk road which india was very well connected with earlier some historians believed that paper failed to catch on as palmyra leaves and birch bark remained far more popular but this theory was discredited later on 204 205 206 207 on the other hand the paper may have arrived in bengal from a separate route as 15th century chinese traveller ma huan remarked that bengali paper was white and made from bark of a tree similar to the chinese method of papermaking as opposed to the middle eastern method of using rags and waste material suggesting a direct route from china for the arrival of paper in bengal and paper was already very well established and widespread in that part of the subcontinent 207 demographics edit main article demographics of india history according to one set of very uncertain estimates by modern historians the total indian population had largely been stagnant at 75 million during the middle kingdoms era from 1 ce to 1000 ce during the medieval delhi sultanate era from 1000 to 1500 india as a whole experienced lasting population growth for the first time in a thousand years with its population increasing nearly 50 to 110 million by 1500 208 209 culture and architecture edit culture edit see also indo persian culture decorative reliefs alai darwaza 1311 while the indian subcontinent has had invaders from central asia since ancient times what made the muslim invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders who assimilated into the prevalent social system the successful muslim conquerors retained their islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics even influencing the non muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent though the non muslim population was left to their laws and customs 210 211 they also introduced new cultural codes that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes this led to the rise of a new indian culture that was mixed in nature different from ancient indian culture the overwhelming majority of muslims in india were indian natives converted to islam this factor also played an important role in the synthesis of cultures 212 the hindustani language hindavi began to emerge in the delhi sultanate period developed from the middle indo aryan apabhramsha vernaculars of north india amir khusrau who lived in the 13th century ce during the delhi sultanate period in north india used a form of hindustani which was the lingua franca of the period in his writings and referred to it as hindavi 27 the officers the sultans khans maliks and the soldiers wore the islamic qabas dress in the style of khwarezm which were tucked in the middle of the body while the turban and kullah were common headwear the turbans were wrapped around the kullah caps and the feet were covered with red boots the wazirs and katibs also dressed like the soldiers except they did not use belts and often let down a piece of cloth in front of them in the manner of the sufis the judges and the learned men wore ample gowns farajiyat and an arabic garment durra 213 architecture edit main article indo islamic architecture the qutb minar left begun c 1200 next to the alai darwaza gatehouse 1311 qutb minar complex in delhi 62 the establishment of the delhi sultanate in 1206 under qutb ud din aibak introduced a large islamic state to india using central asian styles 214 the types and forms of large buildings required by muslim elites with mosques and tombs much the most common were very different from those previously built in india the exteriors of both were very often topped by large domes and made extensive use of arches both of these features were hardly used in hindu temple architecture and other indigenous indian styles both types of building essentially consist of a single large space under a high dome and completely avoid the figurative sculpture so important to hindu temple architecture 215 the important qutb minar complex in delhi was begun under muhammad of ghor by 1199 and continued under qutb ud din aibak and later sultans the quwwat ul islam mosque now a ruin was the first structure like other early islamic buildings it re used elements such as columns from destroyed hindu and jain temples including one on the same site whose platform was reused the style was iranian but the arches were still corbelled in the traditional indian way 216 beside it is the extremely tall qutb minar a minaret or victory tower whose original four stages reach 73 meters with a final stage added later its closest comparator is the 62 metre all brick minaret of jam in afghanistan of c 1190 a decade or so before the probable start of the delhi tower note 3 the surfaces of both are elaborately decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns in delhi the shaft is fluted with superb stalactite bracketing under the balconies at the top of each stage 217 in general minarets were slow to be used in india and are often detached from the main mosque where they exist 218 the tomb of iltutmish was added by 1236 its dome the squinches again corbelled and is now missing and the intricate carving has been described as having an angular harshness from carvers working in an unfamiliar tradition 219 other elements were added to the complex over the next two centuries another very early mosque begun in the 1190s is the adhai din ka jhonpra in ajmer rajasthan built for the same delhi rulers again with corbelled arches and domes here hindu temple columns and possibly some new ones are piled up in threes to achieve extra height both mosques had large detached screens with pointed corbelled arches added in front of them probably under iltutmish a couple of decades later in these the central arch is taller in imitation of an iwan at ajmer the smaller screen arches are tentatively cusped for the first time in india 220 by around 1300 true domes and arches with voussoirs were being built the ruined tomb of balban d 1287 in delhi may be the earliest survival 221 the alai darwaza gatehouse at the qutb complex from 1311 still shows a cautious approach to the new technology with very thick walls and a shallow dome only visible from a certain distance or height bold contrasting colours of masonry with red sandstone and white marble introduce what was to become a common feature of indo islamic architecture substituting for the polychrome tiles used in persia and central asia the pointed arches come together slightly at their base giving a mild horseshoe arch effect and their internal edges are not cusped but lined with conventionalised spearhead projections possibly representing lotus buds jali stone openwork screens are introduced here they already had been long used in temples 222 tughlaq architecture edit tomb of shah rukn e alam at multan built during the reign of ghiyas ud din tughluq in 1320 the tomb of shah rukn e alam built 1320 to 1324 in multan pakistan is a large octagonal brick built mausoleum with polychrome glazed decoration that remains much closer to the styles of iran and afghanistan timber is also used internally this was the earliest major monument of the tughlaq dynasty 1320 1413 built during the unsustainable expansion of its massive territory it was built for a sufi saint rather than a sultan and most of the many tughlaq tombs are much less exuberant the tomb of the founder of the dynasty ghiyath al din tughluq d 1325 is more austere but impressive like a hindu temple it is topped with a small amalaka and a round finial like a kalasha unlike the buildings mentioned previously it completely lacks carved texts and sits in a compound with high walls and battlements both these tombs have external walls sloping slightly inwards by 25 in the delhi tomb like many fortifications including the ruined tughlaqabad fort opposite the tomb intended as the new capital 223 the tughlaqs had a corps of government architects and builders and in this and other roles employed many hindus they left many buildings and a standardised dynastic style 222 the third sultan firuz shah tughlaq r 1351 1388 is said to have designed buildings himself and was the longest ruler and greatest builder of the dynasty his firoz shah palace complex started 1354 at hisar haryana is a ruin but parts are in fair condition 224 some buildings from his reign take forms that had been rare or unknown in islamic buildings 225 he was buried in the large hauz khas complex in delhi with many other buildings from his period and the later sultanate including several small domed pavilions supported only by columns 226 by this time islamic architecture in india had adopted some features of earlier indian architecture such as the use of a high plinth 227 and often mouldings around its edges as well as columns and brackets and hypostyle halls 228 after the death of firoz the tughlaqs declined and the following delhi dynasties were weak most of the monumental buildings constructed were tombs although the impressive lodi gardens in delhi adorned with fountains charbagh gardens ponds tombs and mosques were constructed by the late lodi dynasty the architecture of other regional muslim states was often more impressive 229 screen of the adhai din ka jhonpra mosque ajmer c 1229 corbel arches some cusped tomb of ghiyath al din tughluq d 1325 delhi possibly the first true arches in india tomb of balban d 1287 in delhi pavilions in the hauz khas complex delhi the shish gumbad in the lodi gardens delhi tomb of sikandar lodi in the lodi gardens delhi list of rulers edit main article list of rulers of the delhi sultanate decline edit cities edit while the sacking of cities was not uncommon in medieval warfare the army of the delhi sultanate also often destroyed cities in its military expeditions according to jain chronicler jinaprabha suri nusrat khan s conquests destroyed hundreds of towns including ashapalli modern day ahmedabad anhilvad modern day patan vanthali and surat in gujarat 230 this account is corroborated by ziauddin barani 231 battles and massacres edit ghiyas ud din balban wiped out the rajputs of mewar and awadh killing approximately 100 000 people 232 alauddin khalji ordered the killing of 30 000 people at chittor 233 alauddin khalji ordered the killing brahmins during his raid on devagiri 234 according to a hymn muhammad bin tughlaq is said to have killed 12 000 hindu ascetics during the sacking of srirangam 235 firuz shah tughlaq killed 180 000 people during his invasion of odisha 236 desecration edit jordan catala was a contemporary european witness of the destructions by the turkish saracens in india extract from mirabilia descripta written in 1329 1338 237 238 historian richard eaton has tabulated a campaign of destruction of idols and temples by the delhi sultans intermixed with certain years where the temples were protected from desec...