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robert hopkins 16 flint schier 17 and kendall walton 18 they enlist experience recognition and imagination respectively each provides additional factors to an understanding or interpretation of pictorial reference although none can explain how a picture resembles an object if indeed it does nor how this resemblance is then also a reference for example schier returns to the contrast with language to try to identify a crucial difference in depictive competence understanding a pictorial style does not depend upon learning a vocabulary and syntax once grasped a style allows the recognition of any object known to the user of course recognition allows a great deal more than that books teaching children to read often introduce them to many exotic creatures such as a kangaroo or armadillo through illustrations many fictions and caricatures are promptly recognised without prior acquaintance of either a particular style or the object in question 19 so competence cannot rely on a simple index or synonymy for objects and styles schier s conclusion that lack of syntax and semantics in reference then qualifies as depiction leaves dance architecture animation sculpture and music all sharing the same mode of reference this perhaps points as much to limitations in a linguistic model notation edit reversing orthodoxy the philosopher nelson goodman 20 starts from reference and attempts to assimilate resemblance he denies resemblance as either necessary or sufficient condition for depiction but surprisingly allows that it arises and fluctuates as a matter of usage or familiarity 21 for goodman a picture denotes denotation is divided between description covering writing and extending to more discursive notation including music and dance scores to depiction at greatest remove however a word does not grow to resemble its object no matter how familiar or preferred to explain how a pictorial notation does goodman proposes an analogue system consisting of undifferentiated characters a density of syntax and semantics and relative repleteness of syntax these requirements taken in combination mean that a one way reference running from picture to object encounters a problem if its semantics is undifferentiated then the relation flows back from object to picture depiction can acquire resemblance but must surrender reference this is a point tacitly acknowledged by goodman conceding firstly that density is the antithesis of notation 22 and later that lack of differentiation may actually permit resemblance 23 a denotation without notation lacks sense nevertheless goodman s framework is revisited by philosopher john kulvicki 24 and applied by art historian james elkins 25 to an array of hybrid artefacts combining picture pattern and notation pictorial semiotics edit pictorial semiotics aims for just the kind of integration of depiction with notation undertaken by goodman but fails to identify his requirements for syntax and semantics it seeks to apply the model of structural linguistics to reveal core meanings and permutations for pictures of all kinds but stalls in identifying constituent elements of reference or as semioticians prefer signification similarly they accept resemblance although call it iconicity after charles sanders peirce 26 1931 58 and are uncomfortable in qualifying its role older practitioners such as roland barthes 27 and umberto eco 28 variously shift analysis to underlying connotations for an object depicted or concentrate on description of purported content at the expense of more medium specific meaning essentially they establish a more general iconography a later adherent göran sonesson 29 30 rejects goodman s terms for syntax and semantics as alien to linguistics no more than an ideal and turns instead to the findings of perceptual psychologists such as j m kennedy 31 n h freeman 32 33 and david marr 34 35 in order to detect underlying structure sonesson accepts seeing in 36 although prefers edmund husserl s version 37 38 resemblance is again grounded in optics or the visible although this does not exclude writing nor reconcile resemblance with reference discussion tends to be restricted to the function of outlines in schemes for depth deixis edit the art historian norman bryson 39 persists with a linguistic model and advances a detail of parsing and tense deixis he rejects resemblance and illusion as incompatible with the ambiguities and interpretation available to pictures and is also critical of the inflexible nature of structuralist analysis deixis is taken as the rhetoric of the narrator indicating the presence of the speaker in a discourse a bodily or physical aspect as well as an explicit temporal dimension in depiction this translates as a difference between the gaze where deixis is absent and the glance where it is present where present details to materials indicate how long and in what way the depiction was made where absent a telling suppression or prolonging of the act the distinction attempts to account for the plastic or medium specific qualities absent from earlier semiotic analyses and somewhat approximates the indexic aspect to signs introduced by peirce deixis offers a more elaborate account of the picture surface and broad differences to expression and application but cannot qualify resemblance iconography edit lastly iconography is the study of pictorial content mainly in art and would seem to ignore the question of how to concentrate upon what but iconography s findings take a rather recondite view of content are often based on subtle literary historical and cultural allusion and highlight a sharp difference in terms of resemblance optical accuracy or intuitive illusion resemblance is hardly direct or spontaneous for the iconographer reference rarely to the literal or singular visual perception here is subject to reflection and research the object as much reference as referent the distinguished art historian erwin panofsky 40 allowed three levels to iconography the first is natural content the object recognised or resembling without context on a second level a modifying historical and cultural context and at a third deeper level a fundamental structure or ideology called iconology he even ascribed the use of perspective a deep social meaning 1927 however more recently a natural or neutral level tends to be abandoned as mythical the cultural scholar w j t mitchell 41 42 43 looks to ideology to determine resemblance and depiction as acknowledgement of shifts in relations there albeit by an unspecified scheme or notation iconography points to differences in scope for a theory of depiction where stylistics and a basic object is nominated resemblance is prominent but where more elaborate objects are encountered or terms for nature denied simple perception or notation flounder the difference corresponds somewhat to the division in philosophy between the analytic and continental other issues edit dozens of factors influence depictions and how they are represented 44 these include the equipment used to create the depiction the creator s intent vantage point mobility proximity publication format among others and when dealing with human subjects their potential desire for impression management other debates about the nature of depiction include the relationship between seeing something in a picture and seeing face to face whether depictive representation is conventional how understanding novel depictions is possible the aesthetic and ethical value of depiction and the nature of realism in pictorial art see also edit figurative art representationalism symbol further reading edit books edit alloa emmanuel 2021 looking through images a phenomenology of visual media new york columbia university press barthes roland 1969 elements of semiology paris 1967 translated by annette lavers and colin smith london cape bryson norman 1983 vision and painting the logic of the gaze new haven and london yale university press eco umberto 1980 a theory of semiotics milan 1976 bloomington indiana university press elkins james 1999 the domain of images ithaca and london cornell university press freeman n h and cox m v eds 1985 visual order the nature and development of pictorial representation cambridge cambridge university press gombrich e h 1989 95 the story of art 15th ed london phaidon press gombrich e h 1960 art and illusion oxford phaidon press gombrich e h 1963 meditations on a hobbyhorse oxford phaidon press gombrich e h 1982 the image and the eye oxford and new york phaidon press goodman nelson 1968 languages of art an approach to a theory of symbols indianapolis and new york the bobbs merrill company inc goodman nelson and elgin catherine z 1988 reconceptions in philosophy london and new york routledge gregory r l 1970 the intelligent eye london weidenfeld nicolson hopkins robert 1998 picture image and experience cambridge cambridge university press husserl edmund 1928 zur phänomenologie des inneren zeitbewusstseins halle republished in husserliana x the hague nijhoff 1966 husserl edmund 1980 phantasie bildbewusstsein erinnerung husserliana xxiii the hague nijhoff hyman john 2006 the objective eye colour form and reality in the theory of art chicago and london the university of chicago press kozak piotr 2023 thinking in images imagistic cognition and non propositional content london bloomsbury kulvicki john 2006 on images their structure and content oxford oxford university press lopes dominic 1996 understanding pictures oxford clarendon press lopes dominic 2005 sight and sensibility evaluating pictures oxford clarendon press maynard patrick 1997 the engine of visualization thinking through photography ithaca cornell university press maynard patrick 2005 drawing distinctions the varieties of graphic expression ithaca cornell university press mitchell w j t 1980 the language of images chicago and london university of chicago press mitchell w j t 1986 iconology image text ideology chicago and london university of chicago press mitchell w j t 1994 picture theory chicago and london university of chicago press novitz david 1977 pictures and their use in communication the hague martinus nijhoff panofsky erwin 1955 meaning in the visual arts new york doubleday peirce charles sanders 1931 58 collected papers i viii hartshorne c weiss p burks a eds cambridge ma harvard university press podro michael 1998 depiction new haven and london yale university press schier flint 1986 deeper into pictures cambridge cambridge university press sonesson göran 1989 pictorial concepts inquiries into the semiotic heritage and its relevance for the analysis of the visual world lund aris lund university press walton kendall 1990 mimesis as make believe cambridge mass harvard university press willats john 1997 art and representation new principles in the analysis of pictures princeton n j princeton university press wollheim richard 1987 painting as an art london thames and hudson articles edit alloa emmanuel 2010 seeing as seeing in seeing with looking through pictures image and imaging in philosophy science and the arts proceedings of the 33rd international ludwig wittgenstein symposium in kirchberg frankfurt ontos 2010 179 190 abell catharine 2005a pictorial implicature the journal of aesthetics and art criticism 63 1 55 66 abell catharine 2005b against depictive conventionalism the american philosophical quarterly 42 3 185 197 abell catharine 2005 on outlining the shape of depiction ratio 18 1 27 38 abell catharine 2005 mcintosh s unrealistic picture of peacocke and hopkins on realistic pictures british journal of aesthetics 45 1 64 68 bennett john 1971 depiction and convention the monist 58 255 68 budd malcolm 1992 on looking at a picture in robert hopkins and anthony savile eds psychoanalysis mind and art oxford blackwell budd malcolm 1993 how pictures look in dudley knowles and john skorupski eds virtue and taste oxford blackwell bach kent 1970 part of what a 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