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y parts under the title of reports on the injurious insects of the state of new york 2 another significant contributor to the entomological literature of the united states was charles w woodworth the florida entomologist wilmon newell was a pioneer of pest control as was clarence preston gillette in india thomas bainbrigge fletcher succeeded harold maxwell lefroy and lionel de nicéville as imperial entomologist and wrote some south indian insects and other animals of importance considered especially from an economic point of view an influential work in the subcontinent in france alfred balachowsky was a key figure developments in the last quarter of the 20th century consisted of new techniques and theories that were pioneered and developed including integrated pest management by ray f smith harmful insects edit see also pest organism insects the phylloxera a true gourmet finds out the best vineyards and attaches itself to the best wines cartoon from punch 6 september 1890 insects considered pests of some sort occur among all major living orders with the exception of ephemeroptera mayflies odonata dragonflies plecoptera stoneflies embioptera webspinners trichoptera caddisflies neuroptera in the broad sense and mecoptera as well as the lesser known groups zoraptera grylloblattodea and mantophasmatodea conversely of course essentially all insect orders primarily have members which are beneficial in some respects with the exception of phthiraptera lice siphonaptera fleas and strepsiptera the three orders whose members are exclusively parasitic insects are considered pests for a variety of reasons including direct damage by feeding on crop plants in the field or by infesting stored products indirect damage by spreading viral diseases of crop plants especially by sucking insects such as leafhoppers spreading disease among humans and livestock and annoyance to humans examples of insects regarded as pests include the phylloxera migratory locusts the colorado potato beetle the boll weevil japanese beetle aphids mosquitoes cockroaches the western corn rootworm and some fly species in the past entomologists working on pest insects attempted to eradicate species this rarely worked except in islands or controlled environments and raised ethical issues over time the language changed to terms like control and management the indiscriminate use of toxic and persistent chemicals and the resurgence of pests in the history of cotton growing in the us has been particularly well studied medical and veterinary entomology edit medical and veterinary entomology have a strong link to economic entomology insects pose both benefits as well as disadvantages to medical and veterinary applications to humans and to livestock insect pests or beneficial ones alike have direct and indirect effects on the economy millions of dollars have gone towards developing novel preventative measures and efforts to environmentally prevent suppress and eradicate insect pests in canada as of 2020 5 an example of a common insect across the world involved in medical and veterinary entomology is mosquitos mosquitos family culicidae are well known disease vectors that can transmit and transport diseases and viruses in humans different subfamilies of mosquitos can correspond to different types of illnesses the most prevalent and commonly known disease transmitted by mosquitos is likely malaria malaria edit malaria is caused by protozoans specifically in the plasmodium genus that travels via mosquito transmission malaria is then prevalent in humans when mosquitos bite humans and affects humans by infection of bodily organs including the kidney and neighboring tissues 6 this disease is most prevalent in third world countries and countries in sub saharan africa by 2050 it is estimated that 5 2 billion individuals will be at risk of developing malaria across the world 7 as of 2020 there have been over 1 million cases of death via mosquito transmission and infection of malaria recorded in sub saharan africa 6 this demonstrates a close association of malaria with poverty in some countries the likelihood of children developing malaria in a richer neighborhood is much lower than the likelihood of children developing malaria in a poorer area 8 a study in 1995 observed that areas of the world that were abundant with malaria patients earned only 1 3 of what other countries that were not exposed to malaria were earning 9 in addition the study demonstrated that areas that had a higher gdp per capita in the mid to late 1900s had a lower risk of developing malaria and areas that had a lower gdp per capita from 4000 and less had a much higher risk of developing malaria 9 malaria deterrence and prevention is likely lower in less developed and or rich countries as they may not have sufficient financial aid or resources to combat the abundance of mosquitos present allowing the countries to become more at risk of developing malaria in all age groups and social groups alike 9 anopheles gambiae a known disease vector a part of the mosquito family culicinae that is one of the primary species that transmits and spreads malaria although mosquitos have a profound effect on human disease transmission they also have a large effect on veterinary entomology the eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus primarily affects horses once they are infected they exhibit high body temperatures and fevers as well as abnormal and imbalanced behavior 6 following these symptoms they fall into a coma and die soon after the japanese encephalitis virus affects livestock in asian countries malaysia indonesia and japan these animals are subject to abortion and stillbirth and potentially sterility following infection the death of these animals caused by the disease transmission of mosquitos poses economic issues in these countries specifically as they rely on them as a source of food as well as for their income livestock mainly horses and swine in malaysia japan and indonesia is a commodity for many inhabitants 6 movements to eradicate mosquito populations in malaria patient dense areas have proven to be insufficient and unsuccessful with the exception of recently infected areas or smaller populations on small islands 6 pushing towards eradicating mosquitos altogether can pose enormous effects on global ecosystems mosquitos are still required to upkeep the food chain with regards to being prey for avian and fish species as well as helping with pollination processes 10 termites isoptera edit termites are insects that are part of the order isoptera and are a eusocial group economically termites pose harm to agriculture and crops they have the tendency to attack a crop at any phase of its development and result in loss of crop yield and success 11 in africa crop yield loss was once recorded as 100 due to the presence and persistence of termites 12 crops are not the only kind of plants that termites persist in trees in some areas of the world such as brazil and china have observed an increase in tree replanting activity as the local termite populations would damage structural components of the trees allowing them to not be economically valuable and trigger plant death 13 plant death alone can cause ecological disturbances to organisms that live in or around them as well as providing a food source for them if it is a flowering plant that develops fruits trees are used for sources of paper buildings furniture household items and many more and termites affect the creation of these types of modernized items termites affect infrastructure and buildings they can burrow and cause infrastructure to become weaker by creating cracks and holes in the supporting material causing their deterioration 11 in 2016 vietnam recorded 1 7 million dollars in repair of private owned houses and buildings 11 in 2012 approximately 40 billion dollars was lost globally due to the economic damage caused by termites 14 additional insects edit the eastern tent caterpillar malacosoma americanum contains a toxin called prunasin that impacts livestock specifically horses 15 the caterpillars let out their seta in the animals forage and when ingested will pierce the gastrointestinal wall and get through the bloodstream to the reproductive system this process causes mare reproductive loss syndrome the illness facilitated by these insects can induce abortions and has caused up to 300 500 million dollars of loss in kentucky from 2001 2002 16 blister beetles family meloidae contain a compound called cantharidin which causes blistering 17 the blister beetles can be ingested by livestock via the mouth by hiding in hay or forage when they are ingested they cause injuries in the digestive system to the host 18 19 the insects can also damage crops and garden plants female bot flies family oestridae often lay their eggs on porter flies that will bring their eggs to a host either human or livestock and will allow them to hatch 20 in humans it causes large and painful bites in cows it can cause external damage cows skins are used for leather and when the bot fly bites cause holes in the skin it has a high economic cost bot flies also affect horses in kentucky the kentucky derby community relies on horses and if they ingest the eggs or have porter flies lay eggs on them it can cause issues with digestion and render them not available for kentucky derby 20 bot flies are common within farms and livestock as well as in domestic animals and their potential to create warbles on the animals skin and fur requires further research in preventing economic damage 21 beneficial insects edit main article beneficial insects bees hymenoptera and pollination edit honey is perhaps the most economically valuable product from insects beekeeping is a commercial enterprise in most parts of the world and many forest tribes have been dependent on honey as a major source of nutrition honeybees and bumblebees can also act as pollinators of crop species although pollination can be achieved during pollen transport via wind a large amount is also achieved via insect specifically bee transport in 1986 there was an estimated 17 000 million worth of crops that were solely pollinated by insects in the united states 22 a honeybee apis mellifera pollinates an avocado plant persea americana without the presence of honeybees pollination of several different kinds of angiosperm plants would decrease the economic yield by 40 and the crop yield by 90 23 bees alone are responsible for pollinating approximately 16 of the world s angiosperms 24 plants that were not dependent on pollination via insects had a production value of 151 euros whereas the plants that were dependent on pollination via insects had a production value of over twice that amount at 761 euros 25 apart from crops bees have profound impacts on aiding disadvantageous natural processes like erosion and allow a desired property to up its value by contributing to the localities and surrounding ecosystems by pollinating plants and maintaining the food chain 24 entomophagy edit in efforts to minimize global malnourishment and food limitations and insecurity the prospect of entomophagy has been introduced developing edible insects as a source of food when other forms of protein such as poultry and bovine are less available and less sustainable has been explored insects explored for food and feed include crickets grasshoppers caterpillars ants dragonflies scale insects flies and more 26 boll weevil monument erected by the citizens of enterprise alabama to honour the pest that ended their dependence on cotton a poverty crop recent advances have shown that insects as a source of nutrients and food can be economically valuable less detrimental to the environment and nutritionally valuable initial results of recent studies have recorded that insect production and farming for feed has been shown to emit less greenhouse gases into the atmosphere than that of beef production and matched that of chicken production 27 these results also showed that insect production alone requires less resources than other sources of protein 80 of insects specifically crickets are suitable for consumption whereas 40 55 and 55 of cows pigs and chickens are suitable for consumption respectively 27 crickets have also been found to have high amounts of amino acids such as leucine lysine threonine histidine and more 28 for 1 kg of insects they require approximately 40 m 2 displaystyle m 2 of land 1 5 kg of feed and 2500l of water to produce and farm whereas cows require approximately 250 m 2 displaystyle m 2 of land 10 kg of feed and 15 5l of water to produce and farm 27 traditional remedies for allergies digestive issues cough and cold malaria and other related diseases have included insect consumption as a form of treatment before modernization 29 honeybees apis mellifera produce a variety of medically beneficial products including propolis which has an important role in reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases honey and bee pollen are also known to have antibacterial and anti inflammatory agents to combat illnesses 30 fried crickets and bamboo worms in cambodia insects for feed are typically dried and fried and oftentimes the limbs are taken off during the cleaning process the chef who fried the imaged insects stated that they were grown propagated and cleaned in a safe farm environment the idea of insects as human food is widely practiced in traditional societies and has been proposed as a solution to meet the growing demand for food but has not gained widespread acceptance in the west insects can also be used in the forensic setting as well as in the medical veterinary setting some diptera flies and coleoptera beetles will urinate on a corpse to assess its time of death fly larvae can also be used to feed on living or dead tissue and this technique is used to help treat wounds called maggot therapy entomotourism edit insects are sometimes involved in ecotourism which specific to insects can be defined as entomotourism entomotourism is insect specific tourism these can include butterfly exhibits bee museums nature and animal museums or zoos and more popular global entomotourism sites can include the glow caves in new zealand the butterfly conservatory in niagara falls and the monarch butterfly biosphere reserve in mexico entomotourism is related to economic benefits as less economically developed countries may rely on ecotourism and entomotourism as a form of stable income entomotourism is thought to be an estimated multi million dollar industry 23 additional human benefits edit silk is extracted from both reared caterpillars as well as from the wild producing wild silk sericulture deals with the techniques for efficient silkworm rearing and silk production although new fabric materials have substituted silk in many applications it continues to be the material of choice for surgical sutures lac was once extracted from scale insects but is now replaced by synthetic substit...